Exam 2

amygdala

• almond shaped structure in limbic system

• involved in emotional expression, aggressive behavior, processing emotional memories, fear

hypothalamus

• involved in endocrine system by signaling pituitary gland

• involved in reward and pleasure

• has receptors for dopamine

hippocampus

• gateway to memory

• involved in formation of new conscious memories

cerebral cortex

• on surface of brain

• involved in higher forms of thinking

• very wrinkled in humans

• divided into two hemispheres

• contains four main lobes

brain lobes

frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal

frontal lobe

• most important for higher level functioning like thinking and cognition

• processes judgement, impulse control, morality, personality, planning

• last part to be myelinated

motor cortex

• located in frontal lobes - band across top of head

• governs voluntary movement

  • sends signals from primary motor cortex to various body regions

  • when you move part of the body, certain part of primary motor cortex is activated

• left side of brain controls right side of body (vice versa)

homunculus

• visual representation of the motor cortex

• shows how much space is devoted to controlling each part of the body

• parts requiring fine motor control are larger

broca’s area

• located in left frontal lobe

• responsible for speech production

broca’s aphasia

• damage to broca’s area

• results in difficulty producing speech

• language comprehension is fine

mirror neurons

neurons in frontal lobe that fire when individual performs action and when they observe another person performing same action

parietal lobes

• located at top of brain

• contains somatosensory cortex

sensory/somatosensory cortex

• in parietal lobes

• receives and processes information about touch sensations from regions across the body

• also processes pain

occipital lobes

• located in back of head

• contains visual cortex

visual cortex

• located in occipital lobes

• processes visual signals from eyes

  • eyes → thalamus → visual cortex

• if damaged, vision is impaired because no visual signals can be processes

temporal lobes

• on sides of brain

• contains auditory cortex

auditory cortex

• located in temporal lobes

• processes sound input

  • ears → thalamus → auditory cortex

• if damaged, hearing impairment

wernicke’s area

• located in temporal lobe - typically left side

• responsible for language comprehension

wernicke’s aphasia

• damage to wernicke’s area

• causes impairment in language comprehension

• can produce fluent sounding speech that lacks meaning

plasticity

• flexibility and adaptability of brain structures

• brain can shift functions from damage to undamaged areas to reorganize response

• brain can form new synapses

• brain can physically change structure as result of learning

neurogenesis

growth and development of new neurons in brain

selective attention

focusing consciousness on specific information while ignoring other available information

inattentional blindess

failing to detect available visual stimuli because attention is focused elsewhere

change blindess

failing to notice changes in environment due to selective attention

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

• structure located in hypothalamus

• sensitive to changes in light

• controls body’s circadian rhythm

how does light affect SCN and how are the pineal gland and melatonin involved in our sleep-wake cycle?

• in dark: SCN detects lack of light and signals pineal gland to secrete melatonin

• in light: SCN detects light and signals pineal gland to stop secreting melatonin

What is the effect of artificial lighting on our melatonin production?

• suppresses melatonin production

• tricks SCN into interpreting environment as daytime

• disrupts natural circadian rhythm

N-REM sleep

• non-rapid eye movement sleep

• has three stages - n1, n2, n3

N1

• stage of light sleep

• lasts 10-15 minutes

• body is relaxing, heart rate and breathing are slowing down

hypnagogic jerk

• sudden, involuntary muscle movement occurring during transition into N1 sleep

• might wake you up

hypnagogic hallucination

Sensory experiences/hallucinations (such as feeling like you are falling) occurring during the transition into N1 sleep

N2

• 15-20 minutes

• true sleep

• Brain activity is lower, heart rate and breathing slow down more than N1 - more relaxed

N3

• 20-40 minutes

  • depends on when in night and age

• harder to wake someone up

  • can be confused and disoriented

• Brain activity at its slowest, muscles really relaxed, heart rate and breathing at their lowest

• Growth hormones are released from the pituitary gland

REM

• rapid eye movement sleep

• brain waves resemble wakefulness

• eye moves back and forth rapidly

• Heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing become rapid or irregular

• vivid dreaming occurs during this stage

paradoxical sleep

REM sleep is called "paradoxical" because internally the brain is highly active (resembling awake states), but externally the physical body is completely paralyzed/immobile

sleep paralysis

The temporary inability to move or speak when waking up or falling asleep, caused by the brain maintaining body muscle paralysis (atonia) characteristic of REM sleep

Evolutionary/adaptive - sleep theory

Sleep serves a protective function: keeping organisms safe from predators in the dark when they are vulnerable

restorative - sleep theory

• sleep supports physical growth and cellular healing

• Pituitary gland releases growth hormone; supports immune system functioning

• Sleep deprivation leads to slower healing and reduced immune activity

information processing - sleep theory

• Sleep supports cognitive processes, learning, and creative thinking

• Rebuilds, consolidates, and restores memories

• Deprivation impairs memory formation

freudian - theory of dreaming

Dreams stem from unconscious thoughts, desires, and conflict

manifest and latent content

• Manifest Content: The actual surface story, visual images, and events of the dream

• Latent Content: The hidden, underlying unconscious thoughts, feelings, wishes, and symbolic meaning behind the dream

Activation synthesis - theory of dreaming

Dreams are the brain’s attempt to synthesize and make sense of internally generated random neural signals/bursts during sleep

information processing - theory of dreaming

Dreams help process, sort, and consolidate memories of the day's experiences and events

preserving neural pathways - theory of dreaming

Dreaming provides periodic brain stimulation during sleep to expand and preserve neural pathways

What are the ways in which behavior geneticists can determine the relative contribution of genetic and environmental factors to traits and behavior?

adoption, twin, adoption twin studies

adoption studies

compare adopted children to their adoptive families (environmental influence) and biological families (genetic influence)

twin studies

• Compare identical/monozygotic (MZ) twins (who share 100% of genes) with same-sex fraternal/dizygotic (DZ) twins (who share 50% of genes)

• Higher similarity among MZ twins suggests strong genetic influence

adoption twin studies

Compare monozygotic (MZ) twins separated at birth/infancy and raised in different adoptive environments against MZ twins raised together

primitive reflexes

• automatic responses to physical stimuli present in early infancy

• rooting - turning head and open mouth toward a touch on cheek

• sucking

• moro - startle response where arms spread out and retract in response to sudden noise

• grasping - curl finger around object in palm

• babinski - fanning out toes when sole of foot is stroked

piaget’s approach to cognitive development

• children actively construct their understanding of the world using schemes/schema (mental frameworks/categories)

• cognitive development occurs as children adapt mentally to new experiences

assimilation and accommodation

• Assimilation: Fitting new information or observations into an existing schema/knowledge system

• Accommodation: Modifying or changing an existing schema as a result of new information

sensorimotor - piaget

• birth to 2 years

• Infants learn through sensory impressions and motor activities (looking, sucking, touching)

object permanence

Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be directly seen or heard

Preoperational - piaget

• 2-7 years

• Children develop symbolic thought but lack logical mental operations

egocentrism

The inability to see a situation from another person's perspective; using only one's own frame of reference

animistic thinking

attributing lifelike qualities, feelings, or intentions to inanimate objects

conservation

understanding that physical properties (such as volume, mass, or number) remain the same despite changes in outward appearance

Concrete operational - piaget

• 7-11 years

• children gain mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events and grasp conservation

reversibility

Understanding that an object or stimulus that has been changed can be returned to its original state

transitivity

Understanding logical relationships among elements in a series (e.g., if A > B and B > C, then A > C)

Formal operational - piaget

• 11 to adulthood

• Development of abstract, hypothetical, and systematic reasoning.

• Ability to think logically about future possibilities and hypothetical scenarios

Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development

A sociocultural theory emphasizing that cognitive development occurs through guidance, social interaction, and cultural context

 zone of proximal development

The range between what a child can accomplish independently versus what they can perform with guidance and assistance from a more skilled individual

scaffolding

The process by which a teacher, parent, or mentor adjusts the level of support provided to match the child’s evolving level of development

theory of mind

The understanding of how other people's minds work, including their beliefs, intentions, and perspectives

band-aid box study

Children were shown a familiar Band-Aid box and asked what was inside. They guessed Band-Aids, but when opened, it surprisingly contained pencils. Children without fully developed theory of mind assumed another person coming into the room would also know there were pencils inside the box, whereas children with theory of mind understood others would falsely expect Band-Aids

Erik Erikson’s stage theory of social development

8 distinct stages of human growth from infancy through late adulthood, where each stage centers on a core psychological conflict

Trust vs. mistrust - erikson

• birth 1 yr

• Challenge: Developing a basic sense of trust in caregivers and the world.

• Sensitive, responsive, and consistent caregiving fosters trust, enabling future intimate relationships

Autonomy vs. shame and doubt - erikson

• 1-3 years

• Challenge: Developing independence, self-control, and exercise of free will; failure leads to doubting abilities

Initiative vs. guilt - erikson

• 3-6 years

• Challenge: Learning to initiate tasks, carry out plans, and explore ("Am I good or bad?"); failure results in feeling guilty about efforts toward independence

Industry vs. inferiority - erikson

• 6 to puberty

• Challenge: Developing a sense of competence and pride in skills/tasks; failure leads to feeling inferior.

What were the results of Harlow’s studies of infant attachment

• Harry Harlow separated rhesus monkeys at birth and gave them two artificial surrogate mothers: a wire mother equipped with a feeding bottle and a soft cloth mother without food

• Monkeys spent almost all their time clinging to the soft cloth mother, running to her when frightened.

• This proved that contact comfort, rather than feeding, is the primary driver of attachment

How did Mary Ainsworth study attachment

Developed the Strange Situation procedure, observing infant reactions to a sequence of separations and reunions with their primary caregiver and a stranger in a novel room

Mary Ainsworth’s attachment styles

secure, insecure-anxious, insecure-avoidant

secure - ainsworth

Infant uses caregiver as a secure base to explore. Becomes visibly upset when parent leaves, but is quickly comforted and happy upon reunion

secure base

The caregiver's presence provides a safe anchor allowing the child to confidently explore the environment

Insecure-anxious/ambivalent - ainsworth

Infant is anxious, clings to parent, and is hesitant to explore. Shows intense distress during separation; upon parent's return, seeks contact but displays anger, resistance, and cannot be easily comforted.

Insecure-avoidant - ainsworth

Infant shows little interaction with parent during play, shows minimal distress when parent leaves, and avoids or ignores parent during reunion.

What contributes to attachment styles

• Infant Temperament: Inborn emotional reactivity.

• Parenting Quality: Sensitive, responsive caregiving promotes security.

• Stressful Home Life: Family adversity, conflict, or stress

What are the later correlates of infant attachment style

Secure attachment positively correlates with emotional competence, social skills, quality of interpersonal interactions, emotional regulation, and higher cognitive outcomes (such as a larger vocabulary size)

What was Langlois et al.’s (1995) study

• Investigated how infant physical attractiveness affects maternal behavior. Infants were rated for attractiveness, and mothers were observed interacting with them

• Mothers displayed more affection and devoted more positive attention to infants rated as more attractive

What are Baumrind’s 2 dimensions of parenting

• warmth

• control

Baumrind’s resulting 4 parenting styles

• authoritative

• authoritarian

• permissive

• neglectful

Authoritative - baumrind

High Warmth, High Control. Set clear rules and limits, but are warm, child-centered, and open to communication.

Authoritarian - baumrind

low Warmth, High Control. Highly demanding, strict, controlling, and place heavy emphasis on absolute obedience without warmth

Permissive - baumrind

High Warmth, Low Control. Loving and warm, but set very few rules, restrictions, or demands.

Uninvolved - baumrind

ow Warmth, Low Control. Indifferent, detached, and undemandingly absent; provides minimal care or guidance

How are parenting styles associated with later outcomes

• Authoritative: Most optimal; results in higher academic grades, better social cooperation, high self-esteem, and self-regulation.

• Authoritarian: Leads to lower self-esteem and lower academic performance.

• Permissive: Children tend to be easily frustrated and lack self-control.

• Uninvolved: Leads to lowest outcomes; low self-esteem, poor self-control, and emotional detachment.

What is Kohlberg’s theory of moral development? What are his 3 stages?

Focuses on the development of moral reasoning through cognitive maturity

1. preconventional

2. conventional

3. postconventional

preconventional - kohlberg

• 4-10

• Moral decisions are based on self-interest: avoiding punishment or obtaining physical rewards

Conventional - kohlberg

• after 10

• Moral decisions are based on social rules, social approval, duty, and maintaining law and order

Postconventional - kohlberg

• adolescence

• Moral decisions are guided by self-chosen ethical principles, universal human rights, and conscience, even if they conflict with legal rules

What is the Heinz dilemma

• A hypothetical moral scenario used by Kohlberg:

• A man named Heinz cannot afford an expensive drug needed to save his dying wife. The druggist refuses to lower the price or take partial payment. Heinz must decide whether to steal the drug or obey the law.

• Kohlberg evaluated participants' reasoning behind their answer, rather than whether they said yes or no

What is delay of gratification

The ability to resist smaller, immediate rewards to gain larger, superior rewards later

What was the marshmallow test

• Children were offered one marshmallow immediately or two if they waited alone for a few minutes.

• Children who successfully delayed gratification showed significantly better long-term academic, emotional, and social outcomes later in life

Identity vs. confusion - erikson

• adolescence

• Refining a sense of self and personal values to establish a stable identity, or experiencing role/identity confusion

Intimacy vs. isolation - erikson

• early adulthood

• Forming close, committed, loving relationships, or experiencing social isolation

Generativity vs. stagnation - erikson

• middle adulthood

• Contributing meaningfully to the next generation, society, and family, or feeling stagnant/purposeless.

Integrity vs. despair - erikson

• late adulthood

• Reflecting on life with satisfaction, coherence, and accomplishment (ego integrity), or experiencing disappointment and regret (despair)

socioemotional selectivity theory

Carstensen’s model proposing that as people grow older, they prioritize emotionally meaningful goals. Older adults intentionally trim superficial relationships and narrow their social network to maintain close, deeply satisfying connections