psychology benchmark 1

Core assumptions of the behaviourist approach

All behaviour is learned from the environment through interaction and conditioning; only observable, measurable behaviour should be studied scientifically; basic learning processes are identical across all animal species.

Classical conditioning

Learning through association, whereby an unconditioned stimulus ($\text{UCS}$) is repeatedly paired with a neutral stimulus ($\text{NS}$) until the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus ($\text{CS}$) producing a conditioned response ($\text{CR}$).

Pavlov's classical conditioning research

Demonstrated learning by association in dogs by pairing the sound of a bell (neutral stimulus) with the presentation of food (unconditioned stimulus), eventually leading to salivation (conditioned response) in response to the bell alone.

Operant conditioning

A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped, maintained, or eliminated through its environmental consequences (reinforcements and punishments).

Positive reinforcement vs negative reinforcement

Positive reinforcement involves presenting a rewarding consequence following a behaviour to increase its likelihood; negative reinforcement involves removing or avoiding an unpleasant consequence following a behaviour to increase its likelihood.

Punishment in operant conditioning

An unpleasant consequence following a behaviour (or the removal of a pleasant stimulus) designed to decrease the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated.

Skinner's operant conditioning research

Studied rats and pigeons in an operant chamber (Skinner Box); animals learned to press a lever to receive food pellets (positive reinforcement) or press a lever to terminate an electric grid shock (negative reinforcement).

Strengths of the behaviourist approach

Employs rigorous, objective experimental methods with high control over variables; established successful real-world treatments such as systematic desensitisation for phobias and token economy systems in institutions.

Limitations of the behaviourist approach

Adopts extreme environmental determinism (ignores free will and choice); exhibits a mechanistic view that reduces complex human behaviour to stimulus-response units while neglecting cognitive and biological factors; relies heavily on animal studies with ethical issues.

Core assumptions of Social Learning Theory (SLT)

Behaviour is learned indirectly from the environment through observing role models and imitating their actions, with cognitive mediational processes operating between stimulus and response.

Imitation in Social Learning Theory

The act of copying or reproducing the observed behaviour of a model.

Identification and role models (SLT)

The process where an observer relates to a model because of shared characteristics (e.g., gender, age, status) and desires to be like them, making imitation significantly more likely.

Vicarious reinforcement

Indirect learning that occurs when an observer witnesses a model being rewarded or punished for a behaviour, influencing whether the observer chooses to reproduce it.

Four mediational processes in Social Learning Theory

Attention (noticing the behaviour), Retention (remembering the behaviour), Motor reproduction (physical ability to execute the behaviour), and Motivation (the perceived incentive or reward to perform it).

Strengths and limitations of Social Learning Theory

Strength: More comprehensive than radical behaviourism because it incorporates cognitive mediational factors alongside environmental reinforcement. Limitation: Underestimates biological factors (e.g., the influence of testosterone on aggression observed in Bandura's Bobo doll experiments).

Core assumptions of the cognitive approach

Internal mental processes (memory, perception, thinking) actively drive behaviour and can be studied scientifically by making inferences from observable behaviour.

Schema

A cognitive mental framework or package of beliefs and expectations derived from prior experience that helps organise and interpret new information rapidly.

Theoretical models and computer models in cognitive psychology

Theoretical models are abstract representations of mental processes showing sequential information flow (e.g., multi-store model of memory); computer models equate human information processing directly to a computer's hardware and software (input, processing, output).

Role of inference in cognitive psychology

Drawing logical conclusions about unobservable internal mental processes based on observable behavioural evidence and measurable outcomes.

Strengths and limitations of the cognitive approach

Strength: Utilises rigorous, controlled laboratory experiments and gave rise to cognitive neuroscience. Limitation: Features machine reductionism by ignoring human emotion and motivation, and frequently uses artificial tasks with low ecological validity.

Core assumptions of the humanistic approach

Humans possess free will and personal agency, are inherently self-actualising, and should be understood holistically (anti-reductionism) through their unique subjective experience (idiographic stance).

Free will in humanistic psychology

The ability of individuals to make conscious, autonomous choices that determine their behaviour, rejecting environmental and biological determinism.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

A five-tier model of human motivation consisting of basic deficiency needs (physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem) that must be satisfied sequentially before an individual can pursue self-actualisation.

Self-actualisation

The highest level on Maslow's hierarchy representing the innate drive to fulfill one's creative, intellectual, and personal potential.

Congruence (Carl Rogers)

The degree of alignment and harmony between an individual's real self-concept (how they view themselves) and their ideal self (who they wish to be); substantial overlap is required for self-actualisation.

Conditions of worth

Real or perceived limits and requirements placed on unconditional positive regard by significant others (e.g., parents), where affection is made conditional on fulfilling specific expectations, fostering incongruence.

Strengths and limitations of the humanistic approach

Strength: Positive, empowering view of humanity that advocates for holistic understanding and led to person-centred therapy. Limitation: Untestable and abstract concepts lacking empirical scientific support; culturally biased toward individualistic Western ideals.

Aim in psychological research

A broad statement outlining the general purpose and intended objective of an investigation.

Directional hypothesis vs non-directional hypothesis

A directional (one-tailed) hypothesis predicts the specific nature or direction of an effect or difference (e.g., 'faster', 'higher'); a non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis states there will be a significant difference or relationship without stating the direction.

Independent variable (IV) vs Dependent variable (DV)

The independent variable ($\text{IV}$) is the factor deliberately manipulated or changed by the experimenter; the dependent variable ($\text{DV}$) is the measured factor expected to change as a result of the $\text{IV}$.

Operationalisation of variables

Defining and specifying variables in measurable, objective, and concrete terms to ensure the study can be precisely replicated.

Extraneous variables vs confounding variables

Extraneous variables are nuisance variables (other than the $\text{IV}$) that might affect the $\text{DV}$ if left uncontrolled; confounding variables are uncontrolled variables that vary systematically with the $\text{IV}$, preventing clear cause-and-effect conclusions.

Laboratory experiment vs field experiment

A lab experiment manipulates the $\text{IV}$ in a controlled, artificial setting with high internal validity; a field experiment manipulates the $\text{IV}$ in a natural, real-world setting with higher ecological validity but less control over extraneous variables.

Demand characteristics

Cues, hints, or expectations within an experimental setting that convey the research purpose to participants, causing them to unconsciously or deliberately alter their natural behavior.

Investigator effects

Unintentional cues, actions, or biases of the experimenter (e.g., facial expressions, tone of voice, leading instructions) that influence participant behaviour or data recording.

Repeated measures design

An experimental design where every participant takes part in all conditions of the independent variable, controlling for participant variables but introducing potential order effects.

Independent groups design

An experimental design where different, separate participants are allocated to each condition of the independent variable, eliminating order effects but introducing participant variable differences.

Matched pairs design

An experimental design where participants are pre-tested and paired on key matching characteristics (e.g., age, IQ), with one member allocated to condition A and the other to condition B.

Counterbalancing (ABBA design)

An experimental control technique used in repeated measures designs to mitigate order effects (practice and fatigue) by having half the participants complete condition A followed by B, and the other half complete condition B followed by A.

Levels of measurement: Nominal data

Discrete categorical data where items are sorted into separate, mutually exclusive named bins or categories (e.g., tallies of yes/no, gender, pass/fail).

Levels of measurement: Ordinal data

Data that can be arranged in a ranked order or hierarchy, but lacks equal, standardised intervals between points (e.g., 1-10 subjective stress ratings, finish places in a race).

Levels of measurement: Interval data

Numerical, continuous data measured on standardised scales with equal, mathematically defined intervals between units (e.g., temperature in degrees Celsius, time in seconds).

Formula for percentage calculation

$$\text{Percentage} = \left(\frac{\text{Part}}{\text{Whole}}\right) \times 100$$