Government: Chapter 6-10 Terms Review (Notes in Class)

Participation

• The ways individuals engage in self‑governance, including voting, attending meetings, protesting, signing petitions, volunteering, donating, joining groups, or serving on juries.

  
  

Direct Democracy

• A system where citizens propose, write, and vote directly on laws.

  
  

Representative Democracy

• A system where citizens elect representatives who propose, write, and vote on laws on their behalf.

  
  

Universal Suffrage

• The modern democratic norm that all adult citizens have the right to vote.

  
  

Rational Choice Theory

• The idea that people vote when the benefits outweigh the costs

• Voting is a cost‑benefit calculation.

Political Culture

• Shared political values

• Varies by state (individualistic, moralistic, traditionalistic).

  
  

Education & Socioeconomic Status

• Higher income and education reduce voting “costs” and increase participation.

  
  

Race, Ethnicity & Gender

• Historically restricted participation

• Expanded through the 13th, 14th, 15th, 19th Amendments and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

  
  

Institutional Constraints (Voter Suppression)

• Official methods that reduce access to voting: poll taxes, voter ID laws, fewer polling places, reduced hours, residency requirements.

  
  

Election Type

• Turnout varies by presidential vs. midterm, primary vs. general, and national vs. state vs. local elections.

Core Constituencies

• Groups that political parties rely on

• Republicans tend to have older, wealthier, less diverse, suburban/rural voters.

  
  

Protest

• A vital method for marginalized groups to be seen, heard, and represented.

Nonvoters

• Large numbers of eligible voters who do not participate (118 million in 2018; 80 million in 2020).

  
  

Apathy

• Not participating due to lack of knowledge or interest.

  
  

Alienation

• Belief that one’s vote does not matter, leading to disengagement.

Linkage Institutions

• Structures connecting citizens to government: parties, elections, media, interest groups.

  
  

Political Ideology

• Beliefs about the proper role of government

• Main U.S. ideologies are conservative (right) and liberal (left).

  
  

Party Machines

• Old authoritarian party structures run by bosses who traded favors for loyalty.

  
  

Direct Primary Elections

• Reforms allowing the public to choose party nominees instead of party bosses.

  
  

Candidate-Centered Politics

• Modern trend where candidates rely less on parties and more on media/social media.

Plurality Voting (First-Past-the-Post)

• Candidate wins by receiving the most votes, not necessarily a majority

Majority Voting

• Candidate must receive more than 50% of votes

• May require a runoff.

Third Parties

• Minor parties outside the two major parties

• Rarely win but influence issues.

  
  

Spoiler Effect

• Third‑party candidates siphon votes from major candidates with similar ideologies.

  
  

Barriers to Third Parties

• Winner‑take‑all system, ballot access laws, lack of proportional representation.

Open Primary

• Voters can vote in any party’s primary regardless of affiliation

• Risk of party crashing.

  
  

Closed Primary

• Voters must be registered with the party to vote in its primary.

  
  

Semi-Closed Primary

• Unaffiliated voters may choose a party but must declare affiliation before voting.

  
  

Top-Two Primary

• All candidates run on one ballot

• Top two advance regardless of party.

General Election

• Held between primary winners

• Determines officeholders.

Non-Partisan Elections

• Candidates run without party labels

• Common in municipal and county elections.

Referendum

• A ballot measure originating in the legislature and sent to voters for approval or rejection.

  
  

Initiative

• A citizen‑driven process to propose laws or amendments (mentioned indirectly in your notes).

Public Opinion

• The aggregation of values and attitudes held by individuals in a society.

Values

• General orientations toward politics and public life.

  
  

Attitudes

• Specific views about issues, policies, personalities, or events.

  
  

Political Ideology

• A cohesive set of values about the proper role of government

• Often stable across a lifetime.

  
  

Conservative Ideology

• Right‑leaning

• Associated with the Republican Party.

  
  

Liberal Ideology

• Left‑leaning

• Associated with the Democratic Party.

  
  

Nolan Chart

• A two‑dimensional model showing ideologies based on personal liberty and economic liberty.

Representative Sample

• A randomly selected group that reflects the population being studied.

  
  

Randomization

• Method ensuring every person has an equal chance of being selected; prevents bias.

  
  

Margin of Error

• The amount a poll’s estimate may differ from the true population value (usually 2–4%).

  
  

Oversampling

• When one group is disproportionately represented in a sample.

Nonresponse Bias

• When selected individuals do not participate, skewing results.

  
  

Question Wording Bias

• Confusing or leading questions that distort responses.

  
  

Social Desirability Bias

• People give answers they think are socially acceptable rather than truthful ones.

Endogenous Influences

• Stable, lifelong factors (family, upbringing, core values).

  
  

Exogenous Influences

• External events or experiences that can change attitudes (e.g., 9/11, COVID‑19).

Interest Group

• An organization that advocates for policy goals shared by members or institutions.

  
  

Membership Groups

• Individuals voluntarily join and pay fees (e.g., NRA, Sierra Club, labor unions).

  
  

Institutional Interest Groups

• Organizations (corporations, universities, agencies) that lobby for their interests.

  
  

Business/Trade Associations

• Groups of companies in the same industry lobbying together (e.g., American Beverage Association).

  
  

Hobbyist Lobbyists

• Private individuals who volunteer to advocate for causes.

  
  

Political Efficacy

• Feeling connected and effective in political participation

• Strengthened by group membership.

Union

• A politically important interest group representing workers (e.g., NEA teachers’ union).

  
  

Right-to-Work (RTW) Laws

• Laws prohibiting mandatory union membership or dues

• Weaken unions and reduce Democratic vote share.

Lobbyist

• Individual who works on behalf of interest groups to influence legislation.

  
  

Revolving Door Lobbyist

• Former lawmakers or staffers who become lobbyists, using personal connections.

  
  

Campaign Contributions

• Money given to politicians to support elections

• Regulated differently by each state.

Split Executive

• System where executive power is divided among multiple elected officials (common in states).

Roman Republic Influence

• Historical model where executive power was divided among multiple officeholders.

Governor

• Chief executive of a state

• Elected statewide

• Major policymaker with significant visibility.

  
  

Term Limits

• Rules restricting how many terms a governor may serve (varies by state).

  
  

Residency Requirement

• Governors must typically be state residents for several years before election.

  
  

Governor’s Powers

• Policy making, rule making, calling special sessions, veto power, executive orders, appointments.

  
  

Line-Item Veto

• Power to veto specific parts of a bill

• Held by 44 governors, not by the U.S. President.

  
  

Executive Orders

• Unilateral actions governors use to make policy without legislative approval.

Professionalization Gap

• Governors have large staff and resources

• Many legislatures are part‑time with limited support.

  
  

Veto Override

• In some states, only a simple majority is needed to override a governor’s veto.

Lieutenant Governor

• High‑visibility position with few formal powers

• May preside over the state senate and break ties.

Attorney General

• State’s chief legal officer

• Oversees legal staff, represents the state in court, works with other AGs.

State Legislature

• Law‑making body of the state

• Varies in size and professionalization.

  
  

Bicameral Legislature

• Two chambers (House + Senate)

• Used by most states.

  
  

Unicameral Legislature

• One chamber

• Nebraska is the only state with this system.

Representation

• Legislators act on behalf of constituents’ interests.

  
  

Policy Making

• Drafting, debating, and passing laws.

  
  

Oversight

• Monitoring executive agencies and ensuring laws are implemented properly.

Professional Legislature

• Full‑time, well‑paid, large staff, high resources.

  
  

Citizen Legislature

• Part‑time, low pay, small staff

• Legislators often have other jobs.

Committee System

• Bills are assigned to committees where they may advance or die.

  
  

Special Session

• Session called by the governor to address specific issues.

  
  

Veto Override

• Legislature can overturn governor’s veto

• Rules vary by state.

National Association of Attorneys General (NAAG)

• A national organization allowing state Attorneys General to coordinate, issue joint statements, and make unified requests to national leaders.

  
  

  
  

Attorney General (AG) as a Stepping Stone

• AGs often run for higher office because the position is statewide and builds campaign experience and donor confidence.

  
  

Secretary of State (State Level)

• Manages state records and administers elections; elected statewide in most states, appointed in some (e.g., Texas).

  
  

Election Boards (Secretary of State Role)

• Boards led by Secretaries of State that set election regulations and respond to emergencies.

  
  

Copartisan Advantage

• Parties controlling election offices (like Secretary of State) tend to perform slightly better in close elections due to small administrative advantages.

  
  

Executive Power in Crises

• Executives can act quickly during emergencies (natural disasters, pandemics) because they can enforce decisions immediately.

  
  

2020 Election Emergency Changes

• State Secretaries of State and local officials changed election rules due to COVID‑19, enabling record turnout.

  
  

Split Executive Conflict

• When different parties control different executive offices, crises can create conflict instead of unity.

Texas Plural Executive

• Texas divides executive power among multiple independently elected officials (governor, lieutenant governor, AG, etc.).

  
  

Texas Governor Requirements

• Must be at least 30 years old, a U.S. citizen, and have lived in Texas for the preceding five years.

  
  

Texas Legislature Professionalization

• Texas has a minimally professionalized legislature, giving the governor and lieutenant governor more influence.

  
  

Texas Lieutenant Governor Power

• More influential than in most states

• Holds major legislative authority in the Texas Senate.

  
  

Texas Secretary of State Weakness

• Appointed rather than elected

• Weaker than counterparts in other states.

  
  

Texas Legislature Structure

• 150‑member House, 31‑member Senate

• Meets for 140 days every other year.

  
  

Texas Special Sessions

• Governor can call unlimited special sessions at any time.

Quorum Rule

• Minimum number of legislators required to conduct business

• Minority parties can use it to block action by leaving.

  
  

Baker v. Carr (1962)

• Supreme Court case allowing federal courts to review redistricting under the Equal Protection Clause.