Chapter 11- Physical & Cognitive Development in Adolescence

Adolescence

The developmental transition between childhood and adulthood, which involves physical, cognitive, emotional, and psychosocial changes. It takes varying forms in different social, cultural, and economic settings.

Puberty

The process by which a person attains sexual maturity and the ability to reproduce.

• Begins with a cascade of hormonal responses

• There are two basic stages

  • Adrenarche

  • Gonadarche

• Lasts about 3-4 years and begins around age 8 in girls and age 9 in boys

Adrenarche

Occurs between 6-8 years of age. Adrenal glands secrete increasing levels of androgens (DHEA). DHEA influences the growth of hair, along with faster body growth, oilier skin, and the development of body odor.

Gonadarche

Marked by the maturing of the sex organs, which triggers a second burst of DHEA production

Primary sex characteristics

These are the organs directly related to reproduction

Secondary sex characteristics

These are the physiological signs of sexual maturation that do not involve the sex organs. Examples of these characteristics are:

1. The development of breasts in females

2. Broader shoulders in males

3. Changes in voice

4. Changes in skin texture

5. Muscular development

6. Growth of body hair

Adolescent growth spurt

Refers to the rapid increase in height, weight, and muscle and bone growth that occurs during puberty. It lasts about 2 years and ends with the young person reaching sexual maturity (able to reproduce).

• Girls: It generally happens at about 9.5 and 14.5 years

• Boys: It generally happens at about 12 or 13 years

Sexual maturity

Boys: The production of sperm. Usually begins around age 13.

Girls: The start of menstruation, or their period. Usually occurs between 10-16.5 years of age.

Consequences of early puberty

• Accelerated skeletal maturation

• Psychosocial difficulties

• Linked to adult health issues

Dramatic changes in brain structure take place between puberty and young adulthood

1. Improving information-processing abilities

2. Stronger, smoother, and more effective neuronal connections, amking cognitive processing more efficient.

Brain development

The frontal cortical systems are still underdeveloped. This may be the reason for impulsivity and risk-taking behaviors in adolescence and young adulthood.

Benefits of regular exercise during adolescence

• Improved strength and endurance

• Healthier bones and muscles

• Weight control

• Reduced anxiety and stress

Sleep

The recommended amount of sleep for adolescents between the ages of 13 to 18 is 8-10 hours per day.

Overweight and obesity

Approximately 16% of high school students in the United States are overweight, and another 15.5% are obese

Body image

This refers to descriptive and evaluative beliefs about one’s appearance. It can also be described as one’s perceptions, thoughts, and feelings about one’s body.

• Body satisfaction has been related to self-esteem, dieting, and disordered eating

• Sometimes concerns with one’s body image can lead to obsessive efforts at weight control

Substance abuse

Defined as the harmful use of alcohol or other drugs. It can lead to substance dependence.

Substance dependence

Defined as addiction to a harmful substance. It may be physiological, psychological, or both.

Binge drinking

Defined as the consumption of five or more drinks on one occasion

Marijuana

Approximately 147 million people across the world reported using this in the past year.

Depression

In the United States, 20.1% of young people between 12-17 years of age (in 2021) experienced at least on episode of major depression. Only 40.6% received mental health services.

Formal operations

This is Piaget’s final stage of cognitive development. It is characterized by the ability to think abstractly.

Hypothetical-deductive reasoning

This involves a methodical, scientific, approach to problem-solving and involves developing and testing hypotheses.

During adolescence…

Young people are usually self-conscious and often assume that everyone else is thinking about the same thing that they are.

Imaginary audience

The tendency of adolescents to falsely believe themselves to be the focus of others’ attention

Personal fable

The adolescent belief in one’s uniqueness and invulnerability, associated with risk-taking. They believe that nobody else has ever felt this way or experienced this situation.

Kohlberg’s Six Stages of Moral Reasoning

Level One: Preconventional Morality

1. Avoiding punishment

2. Self-interest

Level Two: Conventional Morality

3. Good boy attitude

4. Law and order morality

Level Three: Postconventional Morality

5. Social contract

6. Principle

Preconventional morality

Control is external and rules are obeyed to avoid punishment and gain rewards = self interest

Conventional morality

Standards of authority figures are internalized

Postconventional morality

People follow internally held moral principles and can decide among conflicting moral standards

Prosocial behavior

Voluntary behavior to benefit others

Prosocial moral reasoning

Reasoning about moral dilemmas in which one person’s needs conflict with those of others in situations in which social rules or norms are unclear or nonexistent.

Self-efficacy

A sense of one’s capability to master challenges and achieve goals

High self-efficacy

In students is seen as those who believe that they can successfully achieve their academic goals

What helps students decide whether or not to attend a traditional college?

1. Self-efficacy beliefs

2. Parents’ values

3. Gender-stereotyping

4. Preferences for analysis vs. creativity