Motor Learning Test #2

Attention

Concentration, awareness, cognitive effort

Multitasking

Simultaneous performance of multiple skills

Visual Search

actively scan environment to locate relevant cues to guide actions and decisions

The “Quiet Eye”

Final, steady visual fixation just before and during movement initiation

Automaticity

Performance of a skill with little to no conscious attention

Fitts and Posner 3 Stage Model

Cognitive stage, associative stage, autonomous stage

Cognitive Stage

Learner thinks about how to solve motor problems (many errors awkward movements, object manipulation is difficult)

Associative Stage

Learner connects environment cues with movements (reinforces performance for consistency)

Autonomous Stage

Learner can perform the skill smoothly and consistently without consciously thinking about each movement

Memory

The capacity that permits organisms to benefit from past experiences

Working memory

Associated with sensory, perceptual, and attentional process (temporary information storage and manipulation)

Long-term memory

Permanent storage of information (relatively permanent and almost limitless)

Explicit (declarative) memory

Involves consciously remembering facts, information, and past experiences that you can put into words.

Semantic memory

Facts and knowledge

Episodic memory

Personal experiences

Encoding

Converting sensory input into a form that can be stored

Rehearsal

Mentally repeating information

Consolidation

Stabilization in the brain during sleep

Maintenance

Occasional retrieval/rehearsal of information

Retrieval

Accessing information when needed

Trace decay

Memories fade with time

Proactive interference

Older memories interfere with ability to learn/retrieve new memories

Retroactive

Newer information interferes with retrieval of older memories

Encoding Specificity Principle

Memory is improved when context and clues that were available at the encoding are also available at retrieval (can be physical locations, an emotional state, skill context, etc.)

Performance

Demonstrating a skill at a specific time in a specific situation

Learning

Relatively permanent improvement in capability to peform a skill

Six Skill Characteristics

Improvement, consistency, stability, persistence, adaptability, reduced attention demands

Improvement

“getting better” over a period of time

Consistency

Less fluctuation from one performance to another

Stability

Action in changing environments (stress, weather, obstacles)

Persistence

Permanence, how long improvement lasts

Adaptability

Performance in new situations where something is different

Reduced attention demands

Automaticity

Performance Learning Curves

Evidence of observed improvement and consistency (linear, negatively accelerated, positively accelerated, ogive/s-shape)

Linear Learning Curve

Constant rate of improvement

Negatively Accelerated Curve

Rapid early improvement, slows later

Positively Accelerated Curve

Slow early improvement, picks up later

Ogive/s-shape Curve

Slow early improvement, accelerated in the middle, slows towards the end

Retention Tests

Permanence of performance level (assess skills after a rest interval with no practice, compared to initial performance)

Transfer Test

Adaptability in a new context or variation (ex. playing a different sporty that is similar to yours)

Coordination Dynamics

Measure movement organization characteristic (observe pattern stability and transitions)

Learning Assessment Techniques

Performance learning curves, retention tests, transfer tests, coordination dynamics.

Plateau

Temporary leveling off of performance even though practice continues

Gentile’s Two Stage Model

Describes learning process from the learner’s perspective (initial and later stages).

Initial Stage

“Getting the idea of movements” (this is where the learner works to achieve basic movement coordination patterns)

Late Stage

Fixation and diversification (This is where the learner becomes more adaptable, is more consistent, and is more efficient)

Specificity of Learning (practice) Hypothesis

Skills and knowledge acquire during practice are most effectively transferred to similar performance contexts.

Transfer of learning

Influence of previous experience on learning a new skill and performing a new skill in a new context

Positive Transfer

Previously learned skill facilitates learning of a new skill due to similarity of perceptual-contextual elements motor patterns or strategies (an old skill helps you learn a new skill)

Negative Transfer

Previously learned skill interferes with learning a new skill due to the incompatibility of motor programs or cognitive processes and environmental contexts or movements being similar but requiring different responses (an old skill makes it harder to learn a new skill)

Bilateral Transfer

Transfer of learning from one limb to another (practice with one side improves performance with the unpracticed side)

Invariant Feature

Parts of a skill that remain consistent from one performance to the next (ex. shooting a basketball stays the same regardless of distance)

Relative Timing

The amount of time spent on each part of a movement compared to the total time needed to complete the entire movement (ex. the backswing part of a golf swing).

Relative Force

The proportion of force used during different parts of a movement compared to the total force of the movement (ex. signing name)

Timing of Demonstration

Prior to practice, interspersed throughout practice, or at the conclusion of practice

Cognitive Mediation Theory

People learn by watching a model, mentally processing what they observe, and then using that information to perform the skill themselves.

Dynamic View of Modeling

People learn by observing the overall movement pattern and adapting it to their own abilities and the environment rather than simply copying every movement exactly.

Task Intrinsic Feedback

Information you receive naturally through your own senses while performing a movement (sensory/visual/tactile information)

Augmented Feedback

Additional information provided by an outside source to help improve performance.

Types of Augmented Feedback

Knowledge of Results (KR) and Knowledge of Performance (KP)

Knowledge of Results (KR)

Outcome focused feedback on results of skill attempt, tells you if you achieved your goal (ex. a learner is told they made 8/10 freethrows)

Knowledge of Performance (KP)

Technique focused feedback about movement characteristics, focuses on the quality of movements (ex. a learner is told they need to keep their elbow aligned when shooting).

Verbal KP

Descriptive KP and Prescriptive KP

Descriptive KP

Tells the learner what they did (identifies error)

Prescriptive KP

Tells the learner what they should do (gives corrections)

Concurrent Feedback

Feedback provided during the skill performance (can create dependency if overused)

Terminal Feedback

Feedback provided after the skill is complete (encourages reflection and long-term learning_

Guidance Hypothesis

Augmented feedback on every trial guides learner to successful practice performance, but results in poor learning and retention due to learner dependency.

Techniques to Reduce Augmented Feedback Frequency

Faded, bandwidth, summary, average, learner regulated

Faded Feedback

High frequency of feedback at the beginning, then tapered

Bandwidth Feedback

Feedback when performance is outside acceptable range.

Summary Feedback

Feedback after block of trials (can be on individual attempts, but only after multiple tirals)

Average Feedback

Feedback based on movement characteristics across several trials (on overall pattern)

Learner Regulated Feedback

Feedback is given when requested by the learner