Lab Biology CFA #2 Review Flashcards

Vocabulary review flashcards based on CFA #2 Biology Review covering cell structure, cell membrane transport, thermodynamics, energy pathways, cellular division, and chromosome dynamics.

Central Vacuole

A large membrane-bound organelle found in plant cells that stores water, nutrients, and waste, helping to maintain cell structure and pressure.

Ribosome

A cellular organelle that functions as the site of protein synthesis.

Cell Wall

A rigid outer structure surrounding the plasma membrane in plant cells that provides protection and structural support.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

A membrane network in eukaryotic cells involved in producing, folding, and transporting proteins and lipids.

Chloroplast

A double-membrane organelle found in plant cells and photosynthetic autotrophs where light energy is converted into chemical energy during photosynthesis.

Cell Theory

The foundational biological principle stating that all living organisms are composed of one or more cells, cells are the basic unit of structure and organization in organisms, and all cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Cell

The fundamental structural, functional, and biological unit of all living organisms.

Cytoplasm

The gel-like fluid environment inside the cell membrane that surrounds and supports the organelles.

Organelle

A specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific cellular function.

Diffusion

The passive net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration.

Osmosis

The passive movement of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane from a region of lower solute concentration to higher solute concentration.

Plasma Membrane

A selectively permeable phospholipid bilayer containing embedded proteins that surrounds the cell and controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell.

Facilitated Diffusion

The passive transport of molecules across the plasma membrane with the assistance of transport proteins.

Carrier Proteins

Membrane proteins that bind to specific molecules, changing shape to move substances across the plasma membrane down their concentration gradient.

Nucleus

The membrane-bound organelle that contains genetic material (DNA) and directs cellular functions such as gene expression, DNA replication, and RNA synthesis.

Mitochondrion (Figure 2)

An organelle that converts pyruvic acid and $O_2$ into usable energy (ATP), releasing $CO_2$ and $H_2O$ as byproducts during cellular respiration.

First Law of Thermodynamics

The law of conservation of energy, which states that energy can change form but cannot be created or destroyed.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

The principle stating that energy transformations are never $100\text{\%}$ efficient, resulting in a loss of usable energy (usually as heat) and an increase in overall entropy.

Autotroph

An organism that synthesizes its own food using energy from sunlight or chemical substances (e.g., plants and algae).

Heterotroph

An organism that cannot synthesize its own food and must obtain energy by consuming other living or once-living organisms (e.g., animals and fungi).

Photosynthesis

The chemical process by which autotrophs convert light energy, carbon dioxide, and water into organic sugars (glucose) and oxygen ($6CO_2 + 6H_2O \rightarrow C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2$).

Cellular Respiration

The metabolic process in which cells breakdown glucose in the presence of oxygen to produce ATP energy, water, and carbon dioxide ($C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2 \rightarrow 6CO_2 + 6H_2O + \text{ATP}$).

Fermentation

An anaerobic process that allows cells to generate ATP without oxygen through the incomplete breakdown of glucose.

Cell Size Limitation

The restriction on how large a cell can grow, determined primarily by the ratio of surface area to volume necessary for efficient transport of nutrients and wastes.

Fertilization

The process in sexual reproduction where a male haploid gamete combines with a female haploid gamete to form a single diploid zygote.

Haploid Cell

A cell containing one set of chromosomes ($n$), which equals $23$ chromosomes in normal human gametes.

Diploid Cell

A cell containing two complete sets of chromosomes ($2n$), which equals $46$ chromosomes in normal human somatic cells.

Theoretical ATP Yield per Glucose

The amount of energy produced under ideal cellular conditions from the breakdown of one glucose molecule, yielding approximately $36$ to $38$ ATP molecules.

Cancer Cell Cycle

An abnormal cell cycle characterized by uncontrolled cell division and growth caused by mutations that bypass normal regulatory checkpoints.

Mitosis

A process of nuclear division in eukaryotic cells that produces two genetically identical diploid ($2n$) daughter cells for growth and repair.

Meiosis

A specialized two-step cell division process that reduces the chromosome number by half, yielding four genetically distinct haploid ($n$) gametes.

Chromatin

The relaxed, uncoiled form of DNA intertwined with histone proteins present during interphase.

Chromosomes

Tightly condensed structures of DNA and protein carrying hereditary material visible during cell division.

Nucleosomes

Repeating structural units of chromatin consisting of a length of DNA coiled around a core of histone proteins.

Homologous Chromosomes

Pairs of chromosomes that share the same size, structure, and gene sequence for specific traits, with one inherited from each parent.

Sex Chromosomes

Chromosomes that determine the biological sex of an individual, designated as $X$ and $Y$ in humans.

Nondisjunction

An error during meiosis where homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids fail to separate properly, resulting in gametes with extra or missing chromosomes (e.g., trisomy leading to Down Syndrome).

Cell Cycle

The sequence of growth and division phases undergone by a eukaryotic cell, consisting of Interphase (G1, S, G2) and M Phase (Mitosis and Cytokinesis).

Karyotype

A visual display or arrangement of an individual's complete set of chromosomes paired and organized by size and shape (autosome pairs $1$-$ $22$$ and sex chromosomes).