patho exam 3 (copy)

What is the primary function of the cardiac system?

Pumps blood to supply oxygen and nutrients to tissues.

How is cardiac output (CO) calculated?

CO = Stroke Volume (SV) × Heart Rate (HR)

What is the average stroke volume (SV)?

Approximately 70 mL.

What are factors that can affect heart rate (HR)?

Age, fitness level, hormonal influences, and autonomic nervous system tone.

What is considered a normal range for cardiac output (CO)?

Approximately 4-8 L/min.

What does preload refer to in cardiovascular terminology?

The volume of blood returning to the heart that determines stretch on the ventricular walls before contraction.

What effect does greater preload have on the heart's contraction?

It increases the force of contraction due to stretch of heart muscle fibers.

What is afterload?

The resistance the heart must pump against to eject blood.

How does hypertension affect afterload?

It increases afterload.

What is contractility?

The heart's ability to contract forcefully.

What is Starling's Law?

The principle that the more the heart is stretched (↑ preload), the stronger it contracts.

What is atherosclerosis?

Hardening of arteries due to plaque buildup, which narrows the arterial lumen and impairs blood flow.

What is coronary artery disease (CAD)?

A condition that leads to angina and myocardial infarction due to reduced blood flow to the heart muscle.

What are the symptoms of a transient ischemic attack (TIA)?

Potentially reversible symptoms that arise from blood clots interrupting blood flow to the brain.

What condition is characterized by claudication?

Peripheral artery disease (PAD), resulting in leg pain with exertion.

What is cardiac tamponade?

A serious condition caused by fluid accumulation that compresses the heart and hinders its ability to pump effectively.

What are classic symptoms of a myocardial infarction (MI) in men?

Severe chest pain, diaphoresis (sweating), nausea, shortness of breath (SOB).

What are atypical symptoms of a myocardial infarction (MI) in women and certain populations?

Fatigue, nausea, jaw pain, dyspnea, back pain.

What can myocardial infarction (MI) lead to as complications?

Arrhythmias, cardiogenic shock, heart failure, and death.

What is ischemic cardiomyopathy?

A condition resulting from chronic ischemia due to CAD, leading to a weakened heart muscle.

What are symptoms of peripheral artery disease (PAD)?

Intermittent claudication, coldness, paleness, weak pulses in the legs.

What are xanthomas?

Fatty deposits that can occur on the skin due to elevated LDL levels.

What does endocarditis affect?

The heart valves, usually due to bacterial infection.

What are systemic symptoms of endocarditis?

Fever, night sweats, and associated chilliness.

What is a common skin manifestation of endocarditis?

Janeway lesions and Osler’s nodes.

What symptoms are associated with left-sided heart failure (HF)?

Pulmonary edema, orthopnea, paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea.

What symptoms are associated with right-sided heart failure?

Peripheral edema, ascites, jugular venous distention, hepatomegaly.

How do baroreceptors function?

They sense blood pressure changes and coordinate the autonomic nervous system response.

What does the RAAS system do when blood pressure is low?

Promotes vasoconstriction, increases blood volume, and raises blood pressure.

What role does vasopressin (ADH) play in blood pressure regulation?

Retains water, increasing blood volume and blood pressure.

What is mitral stenosis?

Narrowing of the mitral valve that leads to increased left atrial pressure and pulmonary congestion.

What is a major risk associated with mitral stenosis?

Atrial fibrillation, which can lead to thromboembolic events and heart failure.

What are the components of Virchow’s Triad?

Endothelial injury, venous stasis, and hypercoagulability.

What is deep vein thrombosis (DVT)?

Formation of a blood clot in a deep vein, typically in the legs.

What serious complication can arise from DVT?

Pulmonary embolism (PE), which can lead to impaired oxygenation.

What are clinical manifestations of disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)?

Excess clotting and bleeding, petechiae, bruising, and organ failure.

What is immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP)?

An autoimmune disorder leading to destruction of platelets.

What are common symptoms of Graves’ disease?

Heat intolerance, weight loss, and exophthalmos.

What is Addison’s disease characterized by?

Deficient cortisol production, leading to fatigue and weight loss.

What are symptoms of Cushing’s syndrome?

Excess cortisol leading to moon face and buffalo hump.

What defines Type 1 diabetes?

Autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing beta cells, leading to absolute insulin deficiency.

What characterizes Type 2 diabetes?

Insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency.

What severe condition can develop in Type 1 diabetes?

Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA).

What severe condition can develop in Type 2 diabetes?

Hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state (HHS).