Conditioning

1. Behavioral Perspective

Focuses on how the environment and experiences influence behavior.
Extra: Emphasizes observable actions rather than thoughts.

2. Classical Conditioning

Learning by associating two stimuli together.
Extra: Discovered by Ivan Pavlov using dogs.

3. Association

A connection formed between two events or stimuli.
Extra: The basis of classical conditioning.

4. Acquisition

The initial stage of learning an association.
Extra: Happens when a neutral stimulus is paired with a UCS.

5. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response.
Extra: Food naturally causes dogs to salivate.

6. Unconditioned Response (UR)

A natural, automatic reaction to a UCS.
Extra: Salivating when seeing food.

7. Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned response to a conditioned stimulus.
Extra: Salivating when hearing a bell.

8. Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that triggers a learned response.
Extra: A bell that makes a dog salivate.

9. Extinction

The weakening of a learned response when the CS is no longer paired with the UCS.
Extra: The dog stops salivating when the bell rings without food.

10. Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of an extinguished response after a break.
Extra: The dog suddenly salivates again when hearing the bell.

11. Stimulus Discrimination

Learning to respond differently to similar stimuli.
Extra: A dog responds to one specific bell but not another.

12. Generalization

Responding similarly to stimuli that resemble the original stimulus.
Extra: A dog salivates to different bell sounds.

13. Higher-Order Conditioning

Using an existing CS to create a new conditioned response.
Extra: A light paired with a bell can eventually trigger salivation.

14. Counterconditioning

Replacing an unwanted response with a new, more positive response.
Extra: Can help someone overcome a fear.

15. Taste Aversion

Avoiding a food after becoming sick from eating it.
Extra: Can happen after just one experience.

16. One-Trial Conditioning / Learning

Learning an association after only one experience.
Extra: Common with taste aversions.

17. Biological Preparedness

Being naturally predisposed to learn certain associations.
Extra: Humans easily develop fears of snakes and spiders.

18. Habituation

Decreased response to a repeated, harmless stimulus.
Extra: Eventually ignoring a ticking clock.

19. Operant Conditioning

Learning through rewards and punishments.
Extra: Developed by B.F. Skinner.

20. Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by satisfying results become more likely.
Extra: Developed by Edward Thorndike.

21. Positive Reinforcement

Adding something desirable to increase a behavior.
Extra: Giving a student candy for good grades.

22. Negative Reinforcement

Removing something unpleasant to increase a behavior.
Extra: Buckling a seatbelt to stop the annoying beeping.

23. Positive Punishment

Adding something unpleasant to decrease a behavior.
Extra: Giving extra chores for breaking a rule.

24. Negative Punishment

Taking away something desirable to decrease a behavior.
Extra: Taking away someone’s phone for misbehavior.

25. Primary Reinforcers

Naturally rewarding things that satisfy basic needs.
Extra: Food, water, and warmth.

26. Secondary Reinforcers

Learned rewards that gain value through association.
Extra: Money, grades, and trophies.

27. Shaping

Rewarding small steps toward a desired behavior.
Extra: Used to train animals to perform tricks.

28. Instinctive Drift

The tendency for learned behavior to return to natural instincts.
Extra: Animals may struggle to learn behaviors against their instincts.

29. Superstitious Behavior

Believing an unrelated action causes a certain outcome.
Extra: Wearing lucky socks before a game.

30. Learned Helplessness

Giving up after repeated experiences of having no control.
Extra: Studied by psychologist Martin Seligman.

31. Reinforcement Schedules

Rules determining when a behavior gets rewarded.
Extra: Include fixed, variable, ratio, and interval schedules.

32. Continuous Reinforcement

Rewarding a behavior every time it occurs.
Extra: Helps establish new behaviors quickly.

33. Partial Reinforcement

Rewarding a behavior only some of the time.
Extra: Behaviors learned this way resist extinction longer.

34. Fixed Interval

Reinforcement after a set amount of time.
Extra: Getting paid every two weeks.

35. Variable Interval

Reinforcement after unpredictable amounts of time.
Extra: Checking your email for unexpected messages.

36. Fixed Ratio

Reinforcement after a set number of behaviors.
Extra: Getting a free drink after buying 10.

37. Variable Ratio

Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of behaviors.
Extra: Winning a prize from a slot machine.

38. Scalloped Graph

A graph showing responding that increases as a fixed interval reward approaches.
Extra: Commonly associated with fixed-interval schedules.

39. Social Learning Theory

Learning by observing and imitating others.
Extra: Developed by Albert Bandura.

40. Vicarious Conditioning

Learning by observing the consequences of someone else’s behavior.
Extra: Seeing someone get punished can discourage you from copying them.

41. Modeling

Learning a behavior by watching and copying someone else.
Extra: Children often imitate adults.

42. Insight Learning

Solving a problem through a sudden realization.
Extra: Associated with Wolfgang Köhler.

43. Latent Learning

Learning that happens without immediate reinforcement but appears later.
Extra: You may learn a route without realizing it until you need it.

44. Cognitive Maps

Mental representations of an environment or layout.
Extra: Help you navigate familiar places without directions.