AQA A Level Psychology - Research Methods

What is reliability?

When an experiment is able to be repeated and consistent results are gained

What is validity?

The extent to which you measure what you intend to measure

What is a hypothesis?

A clear testable statement that predicts the relationship between two variables

What is a lab experiment?

An experiment conducted in a controlled environment where the researcher has manipulated the IV

What is a field experiment?

An experiment conducted in a natural setting where the researcher has manipulated the IV

What is a natural experiment?

An experiment where the IV occurs naturally and is not manipulated by the researcher

What is a quasi experiment?

An experiment where the IV is a pre-existing characteristic

What is the IV?

Variable that is directly manipulated by the researcher

What is the DV?

Variable that is measured

What is a confounding variable?

An extraneous variable that systematically effects the DV

What are order effects?

Changes in performance that is caused by the order of conditions

What are participant variables?

Individual differences between participants

What is meant by internal validity?

Extent to which the IV is caused by the DV

What is external validity?

Extent to which results can be generalised to other settings/populations

What is bias?

When results are systematically distorted

What is generalisability?

The extent to which findings can be applied to target population

What is meant by the target population?

The population that the researcher intends to generalise their findings to

What is a population?

A large group of people that the researcher intends to study

What is the sample?

Subset of target population

What is a sampling technique?

Method used to select participants

What is random sampling?

When every participant has an equal chance of being selected

What is systematic sampling?

Selecting every nth person from a list

What is opportunistic sampling?

Using people who are available at the time/place of sampling

What is meant by an observation?

Watching + recording behaviour

What is a naturalistic observation?

Observing behaviour in a natural environment

What is meant by overt observation?

Participants are aware that they are being observed

What is meant by a covert observation?

Participants are unaware that they are being observed

What is a non-participant observation?

When a researcher observes the group from a distance

What is a participant observation?

Researcher joins in with the group + engages with them

What is a controlled observation?

Structured/lab setting

What is the sampling frame?

List of all the units, people/items in the target population from which the researcher draws a sample

What are 2 advantages of random sampling?

• Reduces researcher bias - each member equal chance of being selected

• More representative than opportunity/volunteer sampling if carried out correctly

What are 2 disadvantages of random sampling?

• Time-consuming as a complete sampling frame is needed

• May still produce an unrep sample by chance

What are 2 advantages of systematic sampling?

• Less researcher bias because PP are selected using a fixed system (e.g. every 10th person)

• Simple + quick to carry out

What are 2 disadvantages of systematic sampling?

• Requires a sampling frame

• Biased sampling may be produced, if there is a pattern in the sampling frame

What are 2 advantages of stratified sampling?

• Most representative as key characteristics reflect the target population

• Allows minority groups to be represented proportionally

What are 2 disadvantages of stratified sampling?

• Very time-consuming - population must be divided into strata

• Requires detailed information about the target pop

What are 2 advantages of opportunity sampling?

• Quick + convenient

• Inexpensive + easy to organise

What are 2 disadvantages of opportunity sampling?

• Researcher bias as PP are chosen based on availability

• Often produces an unrep sample, reducing pop validity

What are 2 advantages of volunteer sampling?

• PP are more willing to take part, reducing withdrawal rates

• Can recruit PP for sensitive research

What are 2 disadvantages of volunteer sampling?

• Volunteer bias - volunteers may share characteristics (e.g. more motivated)

• Sample may not represent the wider population

What are 2 advantages of a naturalistic observation?

• High ecological validity because behaviour occurs naturally

• PP are more likely to behave normally

What are 2 disadvantages of naturalistic observation?

• Little control over extraneous variables

• Difficult to replicate

What are 2 advantages of controlled observation?

• Greater control increases reliability

• Easier to replicate

What are 2 disadvantages of controlled observation?

• Lower ecological validity

• PP may change behaviour if they aware they are being observed

What are 2 advantages of overt observation?

• Ethical because informed consent can be obtained

• PP have right to withdraw

What are 2 disadvantages of overt observation?

• Demand characteristics

• Lower validity - behaviour may be altered

What are 2 advantages of covert observation?

• Reduces demand characteristics

• Produces more natural behaviour

What are 2 disadvantages of covert observation?

• Ethical issues (no informed consent/deception)

• No right to withdraw

What are 2 advantages of PP observation?

• Rich, detailed data

• Observer gains a deeper understanding of behaviour

What are 2 disadvantages of PP observation?

• Observer may lose objectivity

• Harder to accurately record behaviour

What are 2 advantages of non-PP observation?

• More objective

• Easier to record behaviour accurately

What are 2 disadvantages of non-PP observation?

• Less detailed understanding

• PP may notice the observer

What is meant by event sampling?

Recording specific behaviours when they occur

What is time sampling?

Recording behaviour at set time intervals

What are 2 advantages of time sampling?

• Behaviour is recorded systematically

• Easier to compare PP

What are 2 disadvantages of time sampling?

• Important behaviours may be missed

• Doesn’t capture behaviour occurring between intervals

What are 2 advantages of event sampling?

• Every occurrence of the behaviour is recorded

• Useful for studying infrequent behaviours

What are 2 disadvantages of event sampling?

• Frequent behaviours may be difficult to record accurately

• Less systematic than time sampling

What is deception?

Participants are not fully informed about the nature of the study

What is privacy?

The rights of the PP to control info about themselves

What is confidentiality?

Participants data is kept secure and anonymous

What is meant by a pilot study?

Small-scale trial of a procedure

What are demand characteristics?

When the participant guesses the aims of the study + changes their behaviour to adapt to these aims

What are invigilator effects?

When the researcher unintentionally provides cues that influences the behaviour of the PP

What is a correlation?

Stat technique to show the relationship between 2 variables

What is a meta-analysis?

Combining the findings of multiple studies to form a conclusion

What is meant by counterbalancing?

Technique used in repeated measures design to manage order effects

What is operationalisation?

Clearly defining variables so that they can be measured

E.g. measuring happiness → how many times a person smiles in a 2-hour period

What are 3 advantages of lab experiments?

1. High control over extraneous variables (leads to higher internal validity) → e.g. Milgram’s study into obedience → controlled setting - no effect from outside influences

2. Easier to replicate → higher reliability (standardised procedures + controlled conditions make it easier to repeat the study)

3. Can establish cause + effect → researcher manipulates the IV + controls variables → determine whether IV caused changes in DV

What are 3 disadvantages of lab experiments?

1. Low ecological validity → artificial environments may lead to demand characteristics

2. PP behaviour may lack realism → if tasks are unrealistic/meaningless → hard to apply to everyday life

3. Ethical issues → high levels of control may involve deception/stressful procedures

What are 3 advantages of field experiments?

1. High ecological validity → PP are in a real-world experiment, so behaviour is more likely to reflect everyday life

2. Less likely to show demand characteristics → PP often do not know they are being studied - so their behaviour may be more natural

3. Still allows cause + effect conclusions → IV is manipulated, causal relationships identified

What are 3 disadvantages of field experiments?

1. Less control over extraneous variables → real-world environments contains many uncontrolled factors that influence behaviour - reducing internal validity

2. Harder replication → difficult to recreate the same natural environment

3. Ethical concerns → if PP are unaware they are taking part, informed consent may not be obtained

What are 3 advantages of quasi experiment?

1. Allows researchers to study variables that cannot be ethically manipulated → e.g. in areas in like biological psychology → psychologists cannot tell someone to have brain damage

2. High practical value → can investigate important real-world differences between groups

3. Can still compare groups + identify relationships - researchers can examine whether naturally occurring differences affect behaviour

What are 3 disadvantages of quasi experiments?

1. Cannot establish cause + effect → the IV is not manipulated, other variables may explain differences →e.g. older people bad at memory tasks, may be due to another thing outside of age

2. Confounding variables → groups may differ in many ways beside the IV

3. Limited control → researchers cannot control who belongs to each group

What are 3 advantages of natural experiment?

1. High ecological validity → event happens naturally, so behaviour is likely to be realistic

2. Allows research into situations that cannot be created ethically → traumatic events cannot be created ethically → but their effects can be studied when they happen naturally

3. Useful for real-world application → findings can inform policies + intervention

What are 3 disadvantages of natural experiments?

1. Lack of control over variables → many factors surrounding the event may influence behaviour

2. Difficult to replicate → natural events cannot easily occur again in exactly the same way

3. Ethical issues → PP may not be studied during vulnerable situations + informed consent may be hard

What is the difference between realism + ecological validity?

Realism → how closely experimental conditions represent every day life

Ecological validity → a type of external validity measuring whether the outcome can generalise to real-world behaviour + environments

High realism can lead to ecological validity → yet that does not mean that realism results in ecological validity

What is meant by the experimental design of an investigation?

How PP are allocated to conditions

What are the 3 experimental conditions?

1. Independent Groups → different participants take part in each condition

2. Matched Pairs → participants are matched on certain variables → then assigned to separate conditions

3. Repeated Measures → all PP partake in all experimental conditions

What are 2 advantages of independent groups design?

1. No order effects → PP complete one condition - no fatigue/boredom effects

2. Reduces demand characteristics → PP are less likely to guess the aim because they experience only one condition

What are 2 disadvantages of independent groups design?

1. PP variables → differences between PP (e.g. intelligence) may influence the DV rather than the IV

2. More participants required → different group required for each condition - study = more time-consuming + expensive

What are 2 advantages of repeated measures?

1. Controls PP variables → same people used in every condition, individual differences cannot be used to explain differences in DV - increasing internal validity

2. Fewer PP needed → more economical + quicker to recruit

What are 2 disadvantages of repeated measures?

1. Order effects → PP improve/worsen → fatigue/practice

2. Demand characteristics → PP experience all conditions, more likely to work out the aim of the study → may consciously/unconsciously change behaviour to fit/resist hypothesis → reduces the validity of the results because behaviour may not reflect how PP would naturally respond

What is counterbalancing?

Counterbalancing is a technique used in repeated measures designs to reduce order effects. It involves changing the order in which PP complete the conditions, so that some PP complete condition A then B, while others complete condition B then A. This helps to balance out the effects of practice, fatigue/boredom across the conditions.

What are investigator effects?

Any effect of the investigator’s behaviour (conscious/unconscious) on the research outcome of the DV → may include everything from the design of the study, to the selection of + interaction with PP during the research process

What are the 2 types of validity? What are 2 types of external validity?

1. Internal validity → ensuring that the effects observed in the study are due to the manipulation of the IV and not another factor - causal relationship between IV + DV

2. External validity → extent to which study results can be generalised to another setting, population, times in history (temporal validity), real-life behaviour (external validity)

4 improvements to internal validity?

• Control extraneous variables

• Use standardised instructions

• Counterbalancing

• Remove demand characteristics

What does a correlation study typically involve?

Correlational studies → obtaining two different measures from a group of PP + then assessing the degree of association between the measures

What are the 3 types of correlation?

• Positive - an increase in one variable is associated with an increase in another

• Negative → an increase in one variable is associated with a decrease in another

• Zero → no relationship between variables

What is the purpose of a correlation?

To determine the strength + direction of the relationship between two variables without manipulating them → to allow for predictions to be made, patterns to be identified + topics that would otherwise be unethical to be studied, e.g. varying sleep patterns + ability to retain information, predictions can include stuff like → more hobbies - better grades

What is a correlation coefficient + how is it obtained?

Data from scattergraph → statistical test carried out → gives a score → correlation coefficient (between 0 and 1 the closer to 1 the score is - stronger the relationship between the variables, can be positive/negative)

Does correlation mean causation?

No. One variable may not be responsible for the effect on another variable, there may be a third variable linked to both variables

E.g. icecream sales + shark attacks increase when weather is hot + sunny → not caused by each other (caused by good weather - lots of people at beach - icecream + swimming)

What is a structured interview?

A set of questions asked in a fixed order in the same way

Researcher has the order and wording of Qs, as well as range of alternative answers already recorded

Formal, like job interviews

What is an unstructured interview?

A flexible interview with no set questions
Informal, like casual convos

What is a semi-structured interview?

A flexible interview with no set questions

What are 2 advantages of structured interviews?

• Standardised questions improve reliability

• Easier to compare responses

What are 2 disadvantages of structured interviews?

• Limited depth

• Interviewer cannot explore interesting responses

What are 2 advantages of unstructured interviews?

• Rich qualitative data

• Interview can ask follow-up questions

What are 2 disadvantages of unstructured interviews?

• Difficult to replicate

• Greater interviewer bias