radi 660 gateway 1: intro

disease rates and impairment (definition)

morbidity

patterns of occurrence (definition)

epidemiology

collection of signs and symptoms occurring together for a particular condition (definition)

syndrome

what type of cells can release secretions?

gland cells

how is facilitated diffusion different from simple diffusion?

both are against the concentration gradient (high to low concentrations) but facilitated diffusion molecules require a transport/carrier protein

briefly explain osmosis

the movement of solvent molecules (typically water) through a semipermeable membrane, from areas of low to high solute concentration

name 3 causes of cell damage

ischemia (blood flow to the cells is cut off), nutritional deficits, imbalance of fluids and electrolytes

compare metaplasia, dysplasia, and anaplasia

metaplasia = cell changes type/differentiates, dysplasia = abnormal cellular change within a tissue, anaplasia = cells are not developing properly

differentiate between necrosis, infarction, and gangrene

necrosis is a general term for cell death; infarction is cell death due to a lack of blood flow and oxygen; gangrene is tissue death often due to severe infection

list 4 causes of acute inflammation

tissue injury, release of chemical mediators, vasodilation and increased capillary permeability, chemotaxis (movement of cells in response to chemical stimulus) of leukocytes, neutrophils, and lysosomal enzymes

what are the 5 hallmark signs/local effects of inflammation? what causes them?

redness (hyperemia), warmth (hyperemia), swelling (increased interstitial fluid from increased capillary permeability), pain (pressure on nerves from the increased fluid and chemical mediators), loss of function (swelling interferes causing lack of nutrients to cells)

what are the 4 systemic effects of inflammation?

malaise, fatigue, headache, anorexia

briefly explain the fever cycle

pyrogens circulate and reset hypothalamus to higher setting, causing fever. you reach this new setting/temperature by generating heat via curling up, increasing HR, increasing BMR, vasoconstriction, shivering (you feel cold); once you’re warm, pyrogens go away and hypothalamus resets, lowering your temperature. you reach this new setting by losing heat via vasodilation, sweating, extending body (you feel hot)

anaphylaxis signs/symptoms when histamine and chemical mediators irritate sensory nerves

itching (pruritus), hives, tingling warmth

anaphylaxis signs/symptoms when chemical mediators cause contraction of smooth muscle in bronchioles, edema, and increased secretions

dyspnea, cough, wheezing, tight feeling from narrowed airways and lack of oxygen

early vs late nervous system signs/symptoms of anaphylaxis

early = anxiety, fear; late = weakness, dizziness, loss of consciousness

water and solutes move from blood into ISF via tiny blood vessels due to ?

gravity/hydrostatic pressure

largest compartment of water is ?

the intracellular fluid (ICF); water gets taken from ECF first

thirst is controlled in the _ by which 2 hormones?

hypothalamus; ADH (water reabsorption) and aldosterone (sodium reabsorption)

list the 4 causes of edema

increased capillary hydrostatic pressure (higher force of blood against capillary walls, filtering fluid into the tissue spaces faster than lymph system can drain), loss of plasma proteins (lowers bloods pulling force, fluid stays trapped in tissue spaces), increased capillary permeability (fluid can leak into ISF via gaps between cells of vessel walls), lymphatic obstruction (blockage in lymph vessel or node stops flow of fluid causing backup)

name the effects of edema

swelling, pitting, increased body weight, functional impairment, pain, impaired arterial circulation

list the causes of dehydration

vomiting, diarrhea, sweating, diabetic ketoacidosis, insufficient water intake

why does diabetic ketoacidosis cause dehydration?

low insulin forces the body to burn fat for energy, causing high blood sugar and severe dehydration

list some effects of dehydration

dry mucous membranes and decreased skin turgor, lower BP, weak pulse, fatigue, increased hematocrit

how do we compensate for dehydration?

increase thirst, increase HR, constrict cutaneous blood vessels leading to pale, cool, skin, decrease urine output via renal vasoconstriction and increasing ADH and aldosterone

sodium is higher in the _ compared to the _

ECF; ICF

causes of hyponatremia

loss from sweat, vomit, diarrhea, diuretics, hormonal imbalances, renal failure, excessive water intake

effects of hyponatremia

impaired nerve conduction, muscle cramps, abdominal discomfort or cramps with nausea and vomiting, decreased osmotic pressure in ECF causes fluid to move into cells, leading to hypovolemia and lower BP; swelling of brain cells leads to confusion, weakness, headache, seizure

causes of hypernatremia

ingesting large amounts of sodium or loss of water, insufficient ADH, loss of thirst mechanism, watery diarrhea

effects of hypernatremia

fluid shifts out of cells into the ECF, weakness, agitation, firm subcutaneous tissues, increased thirst, dry mucous membranes, decreased urine output because ADH is secreted

causes of hypomagnesemia

malabsorption or malnutrition; diuretics; diseases

causes of hypermagnesemia

renal failure

effects of hypomagnesemia

neuromuscular hyperirritability, tremors, dysrhythmias

effects of hypermagnesemia

depressed neuromuscular function, lethargy, dysrhythmias

causes of hypokalemia

diarrhea, diuretics, excessive aldosterone or glucocorticoids, decreased dietary intake

effects of hypokalemia

cardiac dysrhythmias, interference with neuromuscular function, paresthesia, decreased digestive motility, weak shallow respirations, impaired renal function that increases urine output

causes of hyperkalemia

renal failure, deficit of aldosterone, potassium-sparing diuretics

effects of hyperkalemia

cardiac dysrhythmias, muscle weakness/paralysis, fatigue, nausea, paresthesia

causes of hypercalcemia

increased release of calcium from bone (PTH, immobility, tumors) and increased intake of calcium

effects of hypercalcemia

depressed neuromuscular activity/muscle weakness, anorexia and nausea, polyuria, increased force of cardiac contractions and dysrhythmias, kidney stone

normal range for blood pH

7.35-7.45

if pH is too low/acidic, what happens to respiration rate?

it increases (hyperventilation) to lower CO2 level thus increasing pH/more basic

if pH is too high/basic, what happens to respiration rate?

it decreases (hypoventilation) to increase CO2 levels thus decreasing pH/more acidic

causes of respiratory acidosis

slow shallow respirations and congestion

effects of respiratory acidosis

increased PCO2

how to compensate for respiratory acidosis

kidneys excrete more H+ ions and reabsorb more bicarbonates