People overestimate our ability to predict things that could not have been predicted

hindsight bias

• how likely it is that a result occurred by chance. Shown as a p-value

statistical significance

Informed consent, confidentiality/anonymity, protection from harm, no extreme deception, debrief, right to withdrawal

the 6 ethical guidelines for experiments

manipulated variable

independent variable

measured variable

dependent variable

a visual way to show the relationship between two different numerical variables using dots on a grid.

understand correalational data as it’s represented on a scatter plot

• An operational definition translates an abstract concept into a specific, measurable, and concrete variable, while replication is the process of repeating an experiment to see if the same results occur  

operational definitions & replication experiment

• a quasi-experimental study where a researcher investigates a possible causal relationship by observing an already existing effect and looking backward in time to identify its potential causes 

ex post facto experiment

• a double-blind procedure hides assignments from both the participants and the researchers 

double blind v blind procedure

• A positive correlation means two variables move in the same direction, while a negative correlation means they move in opposite directions 

difference between positive and negative correalation

• values close to -1 or 1 indicate a strong relationship and values near 0 indicate a weak relationship 

strong v weak correalation coefficients

a cognitive bias where people incorrectly perceive a relationship between two unrelated or weakly related variables a cognitive bias where people incorrectly perceive a relationship between two unrelated or weakly related variables

illusory correalation

•  a cognitive bias where a person's subjective confidence in their knowledge, judgment, or abilities is greater than their objective accuracy 

overconfidence

 an experimental technique where researchers use a chance procedure, like a coin flip or a random number generator, to place participants into different study groups, such as a treatment group or a control group

random assignment

• an outside factor that influences both the cause (independent variable) and the effect (dependent variable) in a study, creating a false or distorted relationship between them 

confounding variable

• Psychology uses several major theoretical approaches to explain human thoughts, feelings, and behavior 

approaches to psychology

• focus on different aspects of human thought, behavior, and development 

types of psychologists

• focusing on individual rights and respect for humans versus welfare and humane treatment for animals 

animal v human experimental research guidelines

• Case Study
  Case studies provide deep, detailed insights into rare phenomena, but their findings cannot be generalized to the broader population.Naturalistic Observation
  Naturalistic observation offers high real-world validity by watching unmanipulated behavior, but it lacks control over variables and suffers from potential observer bias. Correlational Research Correlational research efficiently identifies relationships between variables, but it cannot determine cause-and-effect connections.Experiments Experiments establish clear cause-and-effect relationships through controlled manipulation, but artificial laboratory settings can reduce their real-world applicability. Longitudinal research tracks actual developmental changes in the same individuals over time, but it is costly, time-consuming, and vulnerable to participant dropout. Cross-sectional Research Cross-sectional research quickly and cheaply compares different age groups at one point in time, but it cannot distinguish true age changes from generational cohort effects.Surveys Surveys gather large amounts of data from many people quickly and   affordably, but they are vulnerable to dishonest, inaccurate, or biased self-reporting.

Strengths & Weaknesses of Case study, Naturalistic observation, correlational research, experiments, longitudinal, cross-sectional, surveys

• a phenomenon where small changes in how a question, statement, or survey item is phrased lead to different answers from respondents 

wording effect

happens when a person’s health improves after receiving a fake or inactive treatment because they expect it to work

placebo effect

• is known as the father of modern and experimental psychology for separating the field from philosophy and biology. 

wilhelm wundt

• introduced the school of structuralism to the United States and advanced early scientific psychology through strict laboratory experimentation 

edward thitcher

all human and animal behavior is shaped by environmental consequences rather than internal thoughts or free will

bf skinner

• father of American psychology 

william james

single numbers that describe the center or typical value of a data set

central tendencies

• essential Measures of Variability used to describe how spread out a set of numbers is 

measures of variance: standard deviation & range

• Descriptive statistics summarize the observable features of a specific dataset, while inferential statistics use that sample data to make predictions or generalizations about a broader population 

difference between inferential and descriptive statistics

• Structuralism focuses on breaking down the mind into its basic structural elements, while functionalism focuses on the purpose and adaptive function of behavior 

structualis v functionalism

A simple random sample is a subset of individuals chosen from a larger population where every member has an exact and equal chance of being selected

random sample

• an in-depth, detailed examination of a real-world subject—such as a person, group, organization, or event—within its natural context 

case study