Ap Psychology Unit 3

Behavioral Perspective

A psychological approach that focuses on observable behaviors and how they are learned through environmental experiences and conditioning.

Classical Conditioning

Learning through associating two stimuli so that a previously neutral stimulus eventually triggers a learned response.

Acquisition

The initial stage of classical conditioning when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus and begins producing a conditioned response.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior learning.

Unconditioned Response (UR)

An automatic and unlearned response naturally triggered by an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that triggers a learned response after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned response triggered by a conditioned stimulus after classical conditioning occurs.

Extinction

The weakening of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest without additional conditioning.

Stimulus Discrimination

The learned ability to respond to a specific conditioned stimulus but not to similar stimuli.

Generalization (Classical Conditioning)

The tendency for stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus to trigger the same conditioned response.

Higher-Order Conditioning

A process in which an established conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus until the new stimulus also produces a conditioned response.

Counterconditioning

A technique that replaces an unwanted conditioned response by associating the original stimulus with a new response that is incompatible with the unwanted one.

Taste Aversion

A learned dislike of a particular food or flavor after it has been associated with nausea or illness.

Biological Preparedness

An inherited predisposition to learn certain associations more easily because they were advantageous for survival.

One-Trial Learning

Learning an association after only one experience or pairing of stimuli rather than through repeated experiences.

Habituation

A decrease in responsiveness to a repeated or constant stimulus after becoming accustomed to it.

Law of Effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences become more likely to occur while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences become less likely.

Operant Conditioning

Learning in which the likelihood of a voluntary behavior changes because of the reinforcement or punishment that follows it.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus after a behavior to increase the likelihood that the behavior happens again.

Positive Punishment

Adding an unpleasant stimulus after a behavior to decrease the likelihood that the behavior happens again.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing or preventing an unpleasant stimulus after a behavior to increase the likelihood that the behavior happens again.

Negative Punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus after a behavior to decrease the likelihood that the behavior happens again.

Primary Reinforcer

A stimulus that is naturally rewarding because it satisfies a biological need such as food or water.

Secondary Reinforcer

A stimulus that becomes rewarding through learning and association with other reinforcers, such as money or praise.

Shaping

Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior until the complete behavior is learned.

Instinctive Drift

The tendency for an animal's natural behaviors to interfere with or replace behaviors learned through conditioning.

Superstitious Behavior

A behavior that becomes reinforced because a reward accidentally follows it, even though the behavior did not actually cause the reward.

Learned Helplessness

A learned belief that one cannot control unpleasant events, leading to passivity or failure to attempt escape even when control becomes possible.

Continuous vs. Partial Reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement rewards every desired response while partial reinforcement rewards only some responses.

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

A reinforcement schedule that provides a reward after a specific and unchanging number of responses.

Variable-Ratio Schedule

A reinforcement schedule that provides rewards after an unpredictable and changing number of responses.

Fixed-Interval Schedule

A reinforcement schedule that rewards the first desired response after a fixed and predictable amount of time has passed.

Variable-Interval Schedule

A reinforcement schedule that rewards the first desired response after changing and unpredictable amounts of time.

Scalloped Graph

A response pattern typical of fixed-interval reinforcement in which responding slows after reinforcement and increases as the next expected reward approaches.

Social Learning

Learning that occurs through observing other people's behaviors and the consequences of those behaviors rather than relying only on direct experience.

Vicarious Conditioning

Learning a response by watching another person experience a stimulus or consequence without experiencing it directly oneself.

Insight Learning

The sudden realization of a solution to a problem without relying on gradual trial-and-error learning.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and remains unexpressed until there is a reason or incentive to demonstrate it.

Cognitive Map

A mental representation of the layout of a physical environment that helps an individual navigate or locate places.