The Scientific Revolution and The Enlightenment

Comprehensive practice flashcards reviewing the key scientists, philosophers, models, publications, and political impacts of the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment.

What marked the beginning of the Scientific Revolution in the mid-1500s?

Scientists began to question accepted beliefs and develop new theories based on experimentation, observation, and inquiry.

Where did most knowledge originate during the Middle Ages prior to the Scientific Revolution?

Most knowledge came from the Bible and ancient Greek and Roman sources.

What is the Geocentric Theory, and who developed it?

Developed by Ptolemy and supported by the Catholic Church, it posited that the Earth is stationary at the center of the universe while the Moon, Sun, and planets revolve around it in a spherical pattern.

Which astronomical model of the universe is represented in this diagram?

The Geocentric Theory, showing a stationary Earth at the center with the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn orbiting it.

Who developed the Heliocentric Theory, and how did Johannes Kepler later modify it?

Nicolaus Copernicus developed the theory that planets revolve around the Sun; Johannes Kepler mathematically proved that the planets move in elliptical orbits rather than perfect circles.

Which astronomical model of the universe is depicted in this diagram?

The Heliocentric Theory, illustrating the Sun at the center orbited by Mercury, Venus, Earth (with the Moon), Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.

What key celestial observations did Galileo Galilei make with his telescope?

He observed that the Moon had jagged edges, the Sun had dark changeable spots, and Jupiter had $4$ moons, all of which supported the Heliocentric Theory.

Why did the Catholic Church attack Galileo Galilei's work and force him to recant?

The Church feared his findings would weaken people's faith by causing them to question what else the Church was incorrect about. To avoid execution, Galileo recanted and was placed under house arrest for the rest of his life.

What is the Scientific Method, and who were its primary creators?

It is a systematic procedure for collecting and analyzing evidence, created by Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes.

How did the scientific approaches of Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes differ?

Bacon urged scientists to experiment using reason and observation before drawing conclusions, whereas Descartes advocated using logic, mathematics, and reason to deduce basic truths.

What mechanical metaphor did Isaac Newton use to describe the universe?

Newton viewed the universe as a vast, perfect mechanical clock whose parts operated mathematically, with God acting as the clockmaker who set it in motion.

What does Isaac Newton's Law of Gravity state?

It states that there is a force of attraction between objects related to their mass, which increases as they move closer together, pulling objects toward the Earth's surface.

What significant astronomical discovery was made by Maria Winckelmann?

She discovered a comet alongside her husband, Gottfried Kirch.

How did Margaret Cavendish contribute to the era of the Scientific Revolution?

She published numerous philosophical works, contributing significantly to the field of philosophy despite women being barred from attending universities.

What major breakthrough in human anatomy was demonstrated by William Harvey?

Through human dissection, Harvey showed that the heart was the beginning point for the circulation of blood in the human body.

What medical milestone was achieved by Edward Jenner?

He produced the world's first vaccination, which was developed to prevent smallpox.

What was Robert Boyle's core contribution to chemistry?

He argued that matter is composed of many different particles, revealing the direct interactions between volume, temperature, and gas pressure.

What were the primary societal effects of the Scientific Revolution?

It led to a decrease in the power of the Church, less reliance on religion and superstition, the introduction of new ideas and instruments, and a recognition of how much humans still do not know.

What was the Enlightenment, and why was it also called the Age of Reason?

A European intellectual movement of the late 17th and 18th centuries that emphasized reason and individualism; thinkers believed human reason could uncover the natural laws governing society.

What was a philosophe, and what core values did they share?

A philosophe was an Enlightenment intellectual who sought wisdom, valued clear thinking, wit, and humor, urged religious tolerance, condemned religious wars, supported education and free speech, and opposed slavery and torture.

What was Thomas Hobbes's view of human nature and governance in Leviathan (1651)?

Hobbes distrusted human nature, believing that without government people would constantly fight; he advocated for an absolute monarch through a social contract that subjects could never break.

According to John Locke's Two Treatises on Government (1690), what are natural rights?

Locke argued that all individuals possess fundamental natural rights to life, liberty, and property, which governments are created to protect.

Under what circumstance did John Locke believe citizens have the right to overthrow their government?

When a ruler breaks the social contract and acts as a tyrant by failing to protect the natural rights of the people, losing the consent of the governed.

What religious philosophy did Voltaire promote, and how did it view God?

Voltaire believed in Deism, a religious philosophy based on reason and natural law that viewed God as a clockmaker who set the universe in motion and left it to run according to natural laws.

Which quote encapsulates Voltaire's defense of freedom of speech?

"I do not agree with a word you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it."

How did Montesquieu define the separation of powers in The Spirit of Laws?

He proposed dividing government into three branches: the Legislature (makes laws), the Executive (enforces laws), and the Judiciary (interprets laws), balanced by checks and balances.

What view of human nature and society did Jean Jacques Rousseau articulate in The Social Contract?

Rousseau believed human nature is inherently good but corrupted by society; he advocated for direct democracy where individuals contract together and submit to the general will of the majority.

What was the purpose of Denis Diderot's 28-volume encyclopedia project?

Its goal was to bring about a revolution in human thought, free people from prejudice, and summarize human knowledge across the sciences, arts, and trades.

Why was Denis Diderot's encyclopedia banned by the Catholic Church and French royal censors?

It was condemned as anti-religious because of its criticism of religious persecution and church authority.

Which groups were excluded from the natural rights championed by many Enlightenment philosophes?

Women, impoverished people, and enslaved individuals.

What was Enlightened Absolutism, and did it achieve genuine reform?

It was a system in which monarchs attempted to govern by Enlightenment principles while retaining full royal power; however, rulers prioritized power and collected more taxes to wage wars rather than truly helping their subjects.

What role did salons play in spreading Enlightenment ideas?

They were elegant drawing rooms hosted by aristocratic women in Paris where philosophers and guests gathered to debate, shape political opinions, and disseminate Enlightenment concepts.

What core argument did Mary Wollstonecraft advance regarding women?

She argued that women possess the same natural rights as men and should have equal opportunities in education, economic life, and politics.

How was secularism defined during the Enlightenment?

Secularism was defined as the separation of religious institutions from government, legal systems, and public institutions, establishing the division of church and state.

How did Enlightenment ideas influence the founding documents of the American Revolution?

Thomas Jefferson incorporated John Locke's ideas of natural rights and government by consent into the Declaration of Independence, and Enlightenment concepts directly shaped the U.S. Constitution.