Persia and Alexander the Great

Territorial sovereignty

Political authority tied to geographic borders and the law of the land.

Cleisthenes (508 B.C.E.)

Athenian noble whose constitutional reforms laid the groundwork for Athenian democracy.

Demes

Local Athenian neighborhoods or villages made the fundamental root of political organization.

Demarchs

Local officials in demes whose duties replaced the old naucraries.

Trittyes

Thirty regional divisions (10 urban, 10 coastal, 10 inland) assigned by lot to tribes.

Cleisthenes' tribal reorganization

Divided Athens into ten new tribes mixing urban, coastal, and inland demes.

Cleisthenes' Council size reform

Expanded the Council from 400 to 500 members (50 per tribe).

Naucraries

Forty-eight old tribal subdivisions responsible for supplying naval galleys.

Thucydides

Ancient historian who recorded Pericles' Funeral Oration in the Peloponnesian War history.

Pericles' Funeral Oration (431 B.C.E.)

Speech honoring fallen Athenian soldiers while praising democracy and civic patriotism.

Pericles' view of civic duty

Regarded citizens uninterested in public affairs not as harmless, but as useless.

Athens as the 'school of Hellas'

Pericles' characterization of Athens as the model of versatility, freedom, and culture.

Plato (428-348 B.C.E.)

Athenian philosopher who turned from politics after Socrates' execution and Athens' defeat.

The Republic

Plato's dialogue exploring justice, the ideal state, and governance by philosopher-kings.

Philosopher-kings

Plato's concept that ideal rulers must combine political power with true wisdom.

Allegory of the Cave

Plato's parable illustrating the soul's ascent from sensory illusion to true knowledge.

Form of Goodness

In Plato's philosophy, the supreme source of truth, reality, and moral wisdom.

Plato's view of democratic government

Skeptical of democracy, believing it degenerates into rule by an ignorant majority.

Kinship vs. Territorial identity

Historical transition from political authority based on bloodlines to geographic residence.

Assyrian relief sculptures

Palace reliefs depicting royal rituals, hunting (especially lions), and war scenes.

Nebuchadnezzar II

Chaldean king who rebuilt Babylon as the leading state in western Asia.

Cyrus the Great

Achaemenid king who unified Persia and built a vast, compassionate empire.

Satrap / Satrapy

A Persian provincial governor ruling over a kingdom province.

Cyrus's Edict on the Jews

Allowed exiled Jews in Babylon to return to Jerusalem and rebuild their Temple.

Royal Road

Persian highway stretching from Sardis to Susa, enabling rapid communication.

The Immortals

Elite Persian military force of 10,000 soldiers whose numbers were immediately replenished.

Zoroastrianism

Monotheistic Persian religion founded by Zoroaster, centered on the supreme god Ahuramazda.

Zend Avesta

The sacred book containing the written teachings of Zoroastrianism.

Kouros

Life-size stone statue of a young male nude, showing strong Egyptian artistic influence.

Greek Alphabet Adaptation

Greek adaptation of Phoenician consonants with added vowels, creating a phonetic script around 800-750 BCE.

Battle of Marathon (490 BCE)

Athenian victory over invading Persian forces led by King Darius.

Battle of Thermopylae (480 BCE)

Defensive battle where King Leonidas and 300 Spartans fought to the death against Xerxes' army.

Battle of Salamis (480 BCE)

Decisive naval victory where the outnumbered Athenian fleet defeated the Persian navy.

Delian League

Athenian-led confederation formed in 478-477 BCE to continue fighting the Persian threat.

Herodotus

Greek author of 'History of the Persian Wars', considered the first true historian in Western civilization.

Aeschylus

Earliest known Greek tragic playwright, author of the 'Oresteia' trilogy.

Sophocles

Athenian tragedian who authored 'Oedipus the King' and 'Antigone'.

Euripides

Greek tragedian known for realistic characters and a critical portrayal of war.

Parthenon

Athenian temple built between 447-432 BCE dedicated to Athena, exemplifying Classical architectural principles.

Polyclitus

Fifth-century Greek sculptor who wrote a treatise on ideal human proportions illustrated by the Doryphoros.

Sophists

Fifth-century BCE traveling teachers who emphasized rhetoric and rejected speculation about the nature of the universe.

Socratic Method

Question-and-answer teaching technique used by Socrates to lead students to underlying truths through reason.

Aristotle's View of Forms

Belief that universal principles exist within material objects themselves, not in a separate realm of reality.

Aristotle's Good Forms of Government

Monarchy, aristocracy, and constitutional government, with constitutional government favored as the best for most people.

Oracle at Delphi

Sacred shrine dedicated to Apollo where a priestess in ecstasy revealed divine answers to state and personal questions.

Ancient Olympic Games

Quadrennial athletic festival established in 776 BCE held at Olympia to honor Zeus.

Athenian Social Classes

Population division comprising adult male citizens with political rights, resident foreigners (metics), and unfree slaves.

Spartan Women vs. Athenian Women

Spartan women engaged in physical training and held property, unlike isolated Athenian women who managed homes indoors.

Philip II

Macedonian king who built a powerful army and conquered the Greek city-states.

Battle of Chaeronea (338 BCE)

Decisive battle where Philip II defeated the Greek states, establishing control over Greece.

Corinthian League

Alliance of Greek states formed by Philip II, bound by oath to maintain peace and support Macedonia.

Battle of Granicus River (334 BCE)

Alexander's first major battle and victory against the Persian Empire in Asia Minor.

Battle of Issus (333 BCE)

Macedonian victory over Darius III fought on a narrow plain, giving Alexander control of Syria and Egypt.

Alexandria (Egypt)

City founded by Alexander in 332 BCE that became the Greek administrative capital of Egypt.

Battle of Gaugamela (331 BCE)

Decisive victory where Alexander broke Persian military power and secured Mesopotamia.

Battle of the Hydaspes River (326 BCE)

Costly victory for Alexander in northwestern India, after which his mutinous army forced a turn back.

Hellenistic Era

Period after Alexander's conquests marked by the spread of Greek language, culture, and power across the Near East.

Antigonid Dynasty

Hellenistic dynasty established by Antigonus Gonatus in Macedonia and Greece.

Ptolemaic Dynasty

Hellenistic dynasty established by Ptolemy, ruling Egypt as pharaohs until the Roman conquest.

Attalid Dynasty

Hellenistic dynasty established by Attalus I in Pergamum, Asia Minor.

Seleucid Kingdom

Largest Hellenistic kingdom, founded by Seleucus, controlling territories from Syria to Persia.

Megasthenes

Greek ambassador sent by Seleucus to the Mauryan court whose reports informed Western knowledge of India.

Hellenistic Trade Routes

Connected the East with the Mediterranean via the Persian Gulf and Red Sea overland routes.

Spartan Women in the Hellenistic Era

Owned 40 percent of Spartan land and maintained control over their own economic affairs.

Arsinoë II

Ptolemaic queen who influenced government and navy, appearing on coins with her husband.

Theocritus

Hellenistic poet who wrote pastoral 'idylls' dealing with love and nature.

Menander

Athenian playwright who represented New Comedy, focusing on entertainment rather than politics.

Aristarchus of Samos

Hellenistic astronomer who proposed a heliocentric view of the universe.

Eratosthenes

Astronomer who determined the Earth was round and accurately calculated its circumference.

Euclid

Mathematician who compiled the 'Elements', establishing the standard textbook for plane geometry.

Archimedes of Syracuse

Famous scientist who calculated pi, studied spheres and cylinders, and invented practical devices.

Epicureanism

Philosophy founded by Epicurus advocating happiness through freedom from worry and emotional turmoil.

Stoicism

Philosophy founded by Zeno teaching happiness through living in harmony with the divine will.

Cult of Isis

Popular Egyptian mystery religion that promised initiates salvation and eternal life.