AP Psychology Unit 2

Finished! Do not trust everything on here

neuron

nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

Nervous system

the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.

dendrites

a neuron's branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

axon

a long neural extension that conducts messages away from the cell body to other neurons or cells

myelin sheath

a layer of fatty tissue that insulates the axon and speeds up impulses

schwann cells

the type of cells that make up the myelin sheath

Nodes of ranvier

gaps in the myelin sheath that allow for saltatory conduction

action potential

an electrical charge that travels down an axon

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

Neurons are an all-or-nothing response

A big stimulus stimulus will not increase the impulses intensity, rather it will trigger more neurons to fire more often.

depolarization

a step in axon firing when sodium ions (Na⁺) rush into the axon causing the neurons electrical charge become more positive and producing action potential

repolarization

a step in axon firing when potassium ions (K⁺) flood out of the cell, returning the neuron to its usual negative charge after a period of activity

synapses

the junction between the axon terminal for the sending neuron and the dendrite of a receiving neuron

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the receiving neuron

reuptake

the reabsorption of neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft by the sending neuron

refractory period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

Acetylcholine (ACh)

neurotransmitter

enables muscle action, learning am memory

malfunction: with alzheimer’s disease, ACh producing neurons deteriorate

Dopamine

neurotransmitter

influences movement, learning, attention, mood, and pleasure

malfunction: oversupply → schizophrenia | undersupply → tremors +parkinsons

Serotonin

neurotransmitter

affects mood, hunger, and sleep

malfunction: undersupply → depression

Norepinephrine

neurotransmitter

fight or flight, alertness, arousal

malfunction: undersupply → despess mood

GABA

neurotransmitter

major inhibitory neurotransmitter essential for signaling regulation and normal brain function

malfunction: undersupply → seizures, remorse, insomnia

Glutamate

neurotransmitter

primary excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory

malfunction: oversupply → overstimulation of the brain, migraines, seizures

Substance P

neurotransmitter

transmits pain signals and regulates inflammation

malfunction: chronic pain _ joint inflammation

Endorphins

natural, opiate-like, neurotransmitter linked to pain control and pleasure

Agonist

binds to a receptor and produces a response

antagonist

blocks the activation site for a receptor

Inverse agonist

binds to a receptor and does the opposite of the agonist

reuptake inhibitor

blocks the reuptake of a neurotransmitter

Central Nervous System (CNS)

the brain and the spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body

Nerves

bundled axons that connect the CNS to muscles, glands, and sense organs

Sensory (afferent) neurons

cary information from the sensory receptors to he CNS

Motor (efferent) Neurons

cary info from the CNS to muscles and glands

Interneurons

neurons within the CNS that communicate internally, between the sensory inputs and the motor outputs

Somatic Nervous System

controls the body’s skeletal muscles, voluntary movements

subsection of the peripheral Nervous system

Autonomic Nervous System

controls self regulated functions (glands, ,muscles, internal organs)

subsection of the peripheral nervous system

Sympathetic Nervous System

part of the autonomic Nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

Parasympathetic Nervous System

part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

reflexes

a automatic response to a sensory stimulus

endocrine system

the body’s chemical communication system. A set of glands that secrete hormones into the blood stream

Hormones

Chemical messengers made by the endocrine glands that travel through our blood stream and affect our tissues

Hypothalamus

Endocrine gland located below the Thalamus.

It directs maintenance activities such as regulating thirst, temperature and maintaining homeostasis.

It helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.

Part of the limbic system

Pituitary gland - Master gland

A small pea sized gland located below the hypothalamus.

It is in charge of making essential hormones and telling other glands when to release hormones. Releases ACTH, Follicle stimulating hormone, oxytocin, growth hormone, antidiuretic hormone, prolactin, thyroid stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone.

Its main function include growth, metabolism, reproduction, response to stress, lactation, water and salt balance, and childbirth.

Parathyroid gland

Four glands embedded behind the thyroid gland.

They release Parathyroid hormone, which is responsible for controlling blood calcium levels

Thyroid gland

Located in the front of your neck

controls metabolism

Adrenal glands

Located on top of the kidneys

release cortisol, aldosterone, and adrenaline to control metabolism, fight or flight, blood pressure

Pancreas

Release insulin to control blood sugar levels

Pineal gland

Small gland located in the middle of the brain

secretes melatonin to regulate the body’s sleep cycle

Part of the limbic system

Pheremone

a chemical substance produced and released into the environment by an animal affecting the behavior or physiology of others in its own species.

Primer pheromone

Causes slow, long-term, physiological changes such as hormonal effects

Signaling pheromone

Produce rapid behavioral effect such as mating

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

a recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface.

Measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

function

Computed tomography (CT) scan

a series of X-ray photographs taken from various angles and combined into a representation of a slice of the brains structure. Used to assess head injuries, tumors

anatomy

Positron emission tomography (PET) scan

a visual display of brain activity that displays where radioactive glucose goes while the brain completes a task

function

Contralateral organization

Each hemisphere of the brain receives and controls input from opposite sides for the body

Cortical specialization

the idea that different areas of the brain’s cortex are specialized to perform specific function

Lesions

The destruction of a specific part of the brain. Sometimes done by doctors and researchers to gain insight the different functions of the brain

Circadian Rythm

Internal process that regulates your sleep and wakefulness cycle

REM Sleep

Rapid Eye movement

a phase of the sleep cycle marked by vivid dreams, rapid eye movement, and temporary muscle paralysis

REM roubound effect

When someone doesn’t get enough REM sleep, the body tries to make up for it in the following nights

Activation Synthesis Theory

A theory about dreams that suggests that dreams are the brains attempt to make sense for random neural activity during REM sleep

Consolidation Theory

A theory about dreams which proposes that dreaming is part of the process of consolidating memories, when info moves from the short-term to the long-term memory

Glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish and protect neurons

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Increase the likelihood that a neuron will fire an action potential

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Decrease the likelihood that a neuron will fire an action potential

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer generated images of soft tissue

anatomy

fMRI

a technique that measures brain activity by tracking blood flow

function

Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)

a technique that detects how water travels along white matter in the brain

Hindbrain

Located at the base of the skull, right above the spinal cord

Consists of the Medulla, Pons, and Cerebellum

controls life support function and coordination

Medulla

lowest part of the brain stem that connects to the spinal cord

Manages involuntary vital functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing

Pons

Located above the medulla

regulates body movement, attention, sleep, alertness and breathing. Conducts signals from the brain to the cerebrum and sensory info to the thalamus

Cerebellum

A “small brain” located at the back of the brain

coordinates muscle movement and learning

Midbrain

the uppermost part of the brainstem that connects the hind brain and the forebrain.

Brainstem

the lower part of the brain that connects the cerebrum to the spinal cord

midbrain, pons, medulla

Reticular Activating System

a nerve network that travels through the brain stem into the Thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal

Forebrain

Largest and most complex area of the brain

involved in cognition and reasoning; sensory processing; voluntary movement; homeostasis; emotion

cerebrum, hypothalamus, thalamus, olfactory bulb, pineal gland, hippocampus, amygdala

Thalamus

relay station for sensory and motor information

Olfactory bulb

Part of the limbic system

sits on top of the nose cavity and processes smell

Hippocampus

Part of the limbic system

controls memory

Amyglada

Part of the limbic system

emotions, specifically anger and fear

cerebrum

largest part of the brain

Limbic system

a group of interconnected structures that control emotions, memory, and basic survival functions

Amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, thalamus,

cerebral cortex

outermost layer that covers the cerebrum and driver higher level functions like thought, language, and memory

Frontal Lobe

voluntary movement, problem solving, decision making, personality, language production

contains the motor and prefrontal cortex and broca’s area

Motor Cortex

located in the frontal lobe, it controls voluntary muscle movements

body areas requiring precise control occupy the greatest amount of cortical space

Pre frontal Cortex

part of the frontal lobe

controls higher-level thinking, impulse control, and emotion regulation

Brocas area

Located in the frontal lobe

controls speech production

Wernicke’s area

Located in the temporal lobe

understanding language

occipital lobe

processes visual information

temporal lobe

auditory areas

parietal lobe

receives sensory input for tough and body position

Generalizability

The degree to which you can apply the results of the study to a broader context

Somatosensory Cortex

an area at the front of the parietal lobe that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

the more sensitive the body region, the larger the cortex area devoted to it. This is depicted by the homunculus

Association areas

parts of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions, rather they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area

Plasticity

the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

Neurogenesis

The formation of new neurons

Split brain research

experiments on people with a severed corpus callosum

Corpus callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Dual Processing

The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious minds

Left hemisphere

controls right side of the body, receives info from the right visual field, speaking, reading, logical thinking, analytical skills

Right hemisphere

controls left side of the body, receives info from the left visual field, spatial processing, facial recognition, music, emotional expression