ch.32 internal environment of animals: organization & regulation

Chapter 32 focuses on the (1) ______ environment of animals, including body (2) ______ and regulation. Animals must coordinate their organs and maintain (3) ______ to survive.

1. Internal; 2. Organization; 3. Homeostasis

The five major topics of this chapter are (1) ______ organization, (2) the ______ system, (3) homeostasis and ______ control, (4) osmoregulation and ______, and (5) the mammalian ______.

1. Internal; 2. Endocrine; 3. Feedback; 4. Excretion; 5. Kidney

Animal bodies have several levels of organization. Groups of similar cells performing a common function form (1) ______. Different tissues combine to form (2) ______. Groups of organs and tissues working together form an (3) ______ system. All systems work together to create an (4) ______.

1. Tissues; 2. Organs; 3. Organ; 4. Organism

(1) ______ are groups of closely associated cells that perform specific functions. The four major types of animal tissue are (2) ______ tissue, (3) ______ tissue, (4) ______ tissue, and (5) ______ tissue.

1. Tissues; 2. Epithelial; 3. Connective; 4. Muscle; 5. Nervous

(1) ______ tissue covers the body and lines body cavities. It consists of sheets of closely (2) ______ cells. These cells are polarized, meaning they have an (3) ______ surface facing outward or toward a cavity and a (4) ______ lamina underneath. Its three main functions are (5) ______, secretion, and (6) ______.

1. Epithelial; 2. Packed; 3. Apical; 4. Basal; 5. Protection; 6. Absorption

(1) ______ tissue supports and cushions other body structures. Its cells are scattered throughout an extracellular (2) ______. The six main types are (3) ______ connective tissue, fibrous connective tissue, (4) ______ tissue, cartilage, (5) ______, and (6) ______.

1. Connective; 2. Matrix; 3. Loose; 4. Adipose; 5. Blood; 6. Bone

(1) ______ tissue produces movement through contraction using proteins called (2) ______ and (3) ______. (4) ______ muscle attaches to bones and produces voluntary movement. (5) ______ muscle forms the walls of the heart, while (6) ______ muscle controls involuntary movements in internal organs.

1. Muscle; 2. Actin; 3. Myosin; 4. Skeletal; 5. Cardiac; 6. Smooth

(1) ______ tissue receives, processes, and transmits information throughout the body. (2) ______ are specialized cells that receive and send signals. (3) ______ cells support and nourish neurons. In a neuron, (4) ______ receive incoming signals, while the (5) ______ carries signals away from the cell body.

1. Nervous; 2. Neurons; 3. Glial; 4. Dendrites; 5. Axon

Different types of (1) ______ combine to form organs. Each organ contains more than (2) ______ type of tissue, allowing functions such as support, protection, and information transfer. Multiple organs and tissues working together form an (3) ______ system that performs a (4) ______ set of functions.

1. Tissues; 2. One; 3. Organ; 4. Specialized

The (1) ______ system processes food, the (2) ______ system transports materials, and the (3) ______ system exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide. The (4) ______ system removes metabolic wastes, while the (5) ______ system coordinates body activities using hormones. The nervous system responds to (6) ______, and the immune system defends against infections.

1. Digestive; 2. Circulatory; 3. Respiratory; 4. Excretory; 5. Endocrine; 6. Stimuli

The endocrine system coordinates body activities through (1) ______, while the nervous system transmits (2) ______ along neurons. Both systems respond to (3) ______ and help regulate the body's internal (4) ______.

1. Hormones; 2. Signals; 3. Stimuli; 4. Environment

The two major coordination systems are the (1) ______ system and the (2) ______ system. The endocrine system releases chemical messengers called (3) ______ into the bloodstream. The nervous system uses (4) ______ to transmit signals along dedicated pathways to (5) ______ locations.

1. Endocrine; 2. Nervous; 3. Hormones; 4. Neurons; 5. Specific

The nervous system uses (1) ______ and chemical signals, while the endocrine system uses chemical messengers called (2) ______. Nervous responses are usually (3) ______ and short-lasting, while endocrine responses are generally (4) ______ and longer-lasting. Nervous signaling often controls (5) ______ reflexes, while endocrine signaling coordinates gradual (6) ______-wide changes.

1. Electrical; 2. Hormones; 3. Fast; 4. Slow; 5. Autonomic; 6. Body

The (1) ______ system consists of structures that produce and secrete hormones to regulate physiological processes. Endocrine cells are often grouped into (2) ______ glands, meaning they lack ducts. Hormones travel through the (3) ______ and coordinate gradual changes such as growth, metabolism, and (4) ______.

1. Endocrine; 2. Ductless; 3. Bloodstream; 4. Reproduction

The (1) ______ gland produces thyroid hormones that regulate metabolism, while the (2) ______ glands release PTH to raise blood calcium. The adrenal medulla releases (3) ______ and norepinephrine, while the adrenal cortex produces glucocorticoids and (4) ______. The pancreas releases (5) ______ to lower blood glucose and glucagon to raise it. The pineal gland produces (6) ______ to help regulate biological rhythms.

1. Thyroid; 2. Parathyroid; 3. Epinephrine; 4. Mineralocorticoids; 5. Insulin; 6. Melatonin

(1) ______ are chemical messengers released by endocrine cells and typically transported through the (2) ______. They affect only (3) ______ cells containing the appropriate (4) ______. These receptors may be located on the cell (5) ______ or inside the cell.

1. Hormones; 2. Bloodstream; 3. Target; 4. Receptors; 5. Surface

(1) ______-soluble hormones can pass through the plasma membrane and bind to (2) ______ receptors. In contrast, (3) ______-soluble hormones cannot easily cross the lipid membrane and instead bind to (4) ______ receptors. Water-soluble hormones often activate intracellular (5) ______ messengers that produce a cellular response.

1. Lipid; 2. Intracellular; 3. Water; 4. Cell-surface; 5. Second

(1) ______ endocrine signaling occurs when an endocrine cell responds directly to a (2) ______ and secretes a hormone into the (3) ______. For example, low pH in the duodenum stimulates release of (4) ______, which signals pancreatic cells to release (5) ______ to neutralize acidic chyme. This pathway is regulated by (6) ______ feedback.

1. Simple; 2. Stimulus; 3. Bloodstream; 4. Secretin; 5. Bicarbonate; 6. Negative

(1) ______ signaling occurs when a specialized (2) ______ releases a hormone that travels through blood or interstitial fluid. For example, a baby suckling stimulates release of (3) ______ from the posterior pituitary. This hormone causes smooth muscle in the (4) ______ glands to contract, producing milk (5) ______. This is an example of (6) ______ feedback.

1. Neuroendocrine; 2. Neuron; 3. Oxytocin; 4. Mammary; 5. Release; 6. Positive

Most endocrine activity is controlled by the (1) ______, a region of the brain that regulates the (2) ______ gland. The pituitary is often called the (3) ______ gland because it regulates several other (4) ______ glands. The pituitary has two major regions: the (5) ______ and posterior lobes.

1. Hypothalamus; 2. Pituitary; 3. Master; 4. Endocrine; 5. Anterior

The (1) ______ pituitary develops from brain tissue and participates in (2) ______ signaling. It stores and releases hormones produced by the (3) ______. These hormones include (4) ______, which stimulates uterine contractions and milk release, and (5) ______, which increases water reabsorption in the kidneys.

1. Posterior; 2. Neuroendocrine; 3. Hypothalamus; 4. Oxytocin; 5. ADH

The (1) ______ pituitary develops from epithelial cells and participates in (2) ______ endocrine signaling. It produces multiple hormones regulating (3) ______, reproduction, metabolism, and the (4) ______ response. Its hormones can also control other (5) ______ glands, such as the thyroid, adrenal cortex, and reproductive glands.

1. Anterior; 2. Simple; 3. Growth; 4. Stress; 5. Endocrine

The anterior pituitary is regulated by (1) ______ and inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus. In the thyroid hormone cascade, the hypothalamus releases (2) ______, stimulating the anterior pituitary to produce (3) ______. This stimulates the (4) ______ gland to release thyroid hormones T3 and T4. High thyroid hormone levels produce (5) ______ feedback, reducing additional hormone release.

1. Releasing; 2. TRH; 3. TSH; 4. Thyroid; 5. Negative

A single hormone can produce (1) ______ responses in different target tissues. For example, (2) ______ increases blood glucose by stimulating glycogen breakdown in the (3) ______. It relaxes smooth muscle in the airways, causing (4) ______, but causes certain blood vessels supplying the intestines to (5) ______. Different responses occur because cells have different receptors or intracellular (6) ______.

1. Different; 2. Epinephrine; 3. Liver; 4. Dilation; 5. Constrict; 6. Proteins

(1) ______ is the maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment. The body regulates conditions using (2) ______ mechanisms. Two major control systems are (3) ______ feedback, which reverses a change, and (4) ______ feedback, which intensifies a change.

1. Homeostasis; 2. Homeostatic; 3. Negative; 4. Positive

(1) ______ is the maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment. A (2) ______ is the desired value for a regulated condition. A (3) ______ is a change that moves the condition above or below this value. Homeostatic mechanisms respond to changes and help maintain a (4) ______ state within a normal (5) ______.

1. Homeostasis; 2. Set point; 3. Stimulus; 4. Steady; 5. Range

(1) ______ feedback occurs when a change triggers a response that (2) ______ the original change and restores (3) ______. For example, high blood glucose stimulates the pancreas to release (4) ______, which lowers blood sugar. Low blood glucose stimulates release of (5) ______, which raises blood sugar.

1. Negative; 2. Reverses; 3. Homeostasis; 4. Insulin; 5. Glucagon

(1) ______ feedback occurs when a response (2) ______ the original stimulus, moving conditions farther from homeostasis. One example is blood (3) ______. Damaged tissue releases chemicals that activate (4) ______, which release more activating chemicals and recruit additional platelets until the (5) ______ forms. Positive feedback can be beneficial or (6) ______.

1. Positive; 2. Intensifies; 3. Clotting; 4. Platelets; 5. Clot; 6. Harmful

(1) ______ regulates water and solute concentrations in body fluids, while (2) ______ removes metabolic wastes. Animals living in (3) ______ and saltwater environments face different challenges because water moves through (4) ______.

1. Osmoregulation; 2. Excretion; 3. Freshwater; 4. Osmosis

(1) ______ is the regulation of water and dissolved solutes in interstitial fluid. (2) ______ is the removal of metabolic wastes from the body. Waste products such as carbon dioxide and (3) ______ wastes must be removed because accumulation can disrupt (4) ______. Excretory systems perform both osmoregulation and (5) ______.

1. Osmoregulation; 2. Excretion; 3. Nitrogenous; 4. Homeostasis; 5. Excretion

(1) ______ maintain body fluid concentrations approximately equal to their external environment, meaning their fluids are in osmotic (2) ______ with the environment. (3) ______ expend energy to control water and solute balance despite environmental changes. On a graph, an osmoconformer's internal osmotic pressure changes with the environment, while an osmoregulator maintains a relatively (4) ______ internal osmotic pressure.

1. Osmoconformers; 2. Equilibrium; 3. Osmoregulators; 4. Stable

(1) ______ organisms have body fluids with lower solute concentration than their environment, so water moves (2) ______ of the body and salts tend to move (3) ______. Marine bony fish compensate by drinking (4) ______ and excreting excess salts. (5) ______ organisms have higher solute concentrations than their environment, so water moves (6) ______ the body and salts tend to leave, as in freshwater fish.

1. Hypoosmotic; 2. Out; 3. In; 4. Seawater; 5. Hyperosmotic; 6. Into

(1) ______ animals must prevent dehydration because they live outside water. Protective body (2) ______ reduce water loss. They obtain water by (3) ______ and eating moist foods. Animals can also produce (4) ______ water during cellular (5) ______.

1. Terrestrial; 2. Coverings; 3. Drinking; 4. Metabolic; 5. Respiration

The metabolism of proteins and nucleic acids produces nitrogenous waste called (1) ______, which is highly (2) ______. Some animals convert ammonia into (3) ______ or (4) ______, which are less toxic but require more (5) ______ to produce. Many mammals primarily excrete urea, while birds and many reptiles excrete (6) ______ acid.

1. Ammonia; 2. Toxic; 3. Urea; 4. Uric acid; 5. Energy; 6. Uric

Most excretory systems rely on specialized (1) ______ epithelia and involve four steps. (2) ______ removes fluid and small solutes from body fluids. (3) ______ returns useful substances to the body. (4) ______ moves additional wastes into the filtrate. Finally, (5) ______ removes the processed filtrate from the body.

1. Transport; 2. Filtration; 3. Reabsorption; 4. Secretion; 5. Excretion

The mammalian urinary system includes the (1) ______, ureters, urinary bladder, and (2) ______. The functional unit of the kidney is the (3) ______. Urine is produced through filtration, (4) ______, secretion, and final concentration before being released from the (5) ______.

1. Kidneys; 2. Urethra; 3. Nephron; 4. Reabsorption; 5. Body

The (1) ______ system filters blood and produces urine. Urine is made in the (2) ______ and passes through the (3) ______ to the urinary bladder, where it is (4) ______. It leaves the body through the (5) ______. Remember: kidneys → ureters → (6) ______ → urethra.

1. Urinary; 2. Kidneys; 3. Ureters; 4. Stored; 5. Urethra; 6. Bladder

The (1) ______ is the main osmoregulatory and excretory organ in vertebrates. Kidneys filter (2) ______ to remove metabolic wastes and regulate (3) ______ balance. They also produce substances that help regulate blood (4) ______ and maintain internal (5) ______.

1. Kidney; 2. Blood; 3. Fluid; 4. Pressure; 5. Homeostasis

The (1) ______ is the functional unit of the kidney. The (2) ______ capsule surrounds a cluster of capillaries called the (3) ______. The renal tubule begins with the (4) ______ tubule, followed by the loop of (5) ______ and the (6) ______ tubule, which leads toward the collecting duct.

1. Nephron; 2. Bowman's; 3. Glomerulus; 4. Proximal; 5. Henle; 6. Distal

During glomerular (1) ______, blood passes through the (2) ______ under high pressure. Approximately (3) ______% of plasma enters Bowman's capsule as filtrate, according to the lecture. The porous walls of glomerular (4) ______ and Bowman's capsule form the (5) ______ membrane. Blood enters through the (6) ______ arteriole and exits through the efferent arteriole.

1. Filtration; 2. Glomerulus; 3. 10; 4. Capillaries; 5. Filtration; 6. Afferent

Glomerular filtration is relatively (1) ______-selective for ions and small molecules. The filtration membrane allows (2) ______ and small solutes such as glucose, (3) ______ acids, and ions to pass into (4) ______ capsule. The resulting fluid is called glomerular (5) ______. Larger blood cells are normally (6) ______ from passing through.

1. Non; 2. Fluid; 3. Amino; 4. Bowman's; 5. Filtrate; 6. Prevented

Approximately (1) ______% of glomerular filtrate is eventually reabsorbed into blood, with about (2) ______% reabsorbed in the proximal tubule. (3) ______ means returning useful materials from filtrate to the (4) ______. The proximal tubule reabsorbs valuable substances such as (5) ______, amino acids, and vitamins while leaving many (6) ______ in the filtrate.

1. 99; 2. 65; 3. Reabsorption; 4. Blood; 5. Glucose; 6. Wastes

In the (1) ______ limb of the loop of Henle, water leaves the filtrate through (2) ______ channels. This limb lacks significant salt permeability, so mostly (3) ______ is reabsorbed. Water moves out because the surrounding interstitial fluid is (4) ______, meaning it has a high solute concentration. As water leaves, the filtrate becomes increasingly (5) ______.

1. Descending; 2. Aquaporin; 3. Water; 4. Hyperosmotic; 5. Concentrated

In the (1) ______ limb of the loop of Henle, salts move from the filtrate into the surrounding (2) ______ fluid. This limb lacks (3) ______, so water cannot follow the salts. As NaCl leaves without water, the filtrate becomes increasingly (4) ______ as it moves upward toward the kidney (5) ______.

1. Ascending; 2. Interstitial; 3. Aquaporins; 4. Dilute; 5. Cortex

The (1) ______ tubule regulates ion concentrations and contributes to pH balance. Through (2) ______, substances move from blood into the filtrate. The distal tubule can adjust how much (3) ______ is secreted into filtrate and how much (4) ______ is reabsorbed. These movements help maintain electrolyte balance and blood (5) ______.

1. Distal; 2. Secretion; 3. K+; 4. NaCl; 5. pH

The (1) ______ duct receives filtrate from the distal tubule and carries it toward the renal (2) ______. It reabsorbs additional (3) ______, causing the remaining urine to become more (4) ______. Water reabsorption here helps the kidneys conserve water and maintain proper fluid (5) ______.

1. Collecting; 2. Pelvis; 3. Water; 4. Concentrated; 5. Balance

As filtrate moves through the nephron, the (1) ______ tubule reabsorbs nutrients and water. The (2) ______ limb of the loop of Henle loses water, concentrating filtrate. The (3) ______ limb loses NaCl but not water, making filtrate more dilute. The (4) ______ tubule adjusts ion concentrations and pH. The (5) ______ duct reabsorbs additional water and carries urine toward the renal pelvis. The surrounding medulla becomes increasingly (6) ______ deeper into the kidney.

1. Proximal; 2. Descending; 3. Ascending; 4. Distal; 5. Collecting; 6. Hyperosmotic

(1) ______ rats are desert-adapted mammals that conserve water by producing extremely (2) ______ urine. This allows them to eliminate metabolic (3) ______ while losing very little (4) ______. Their kidneys help them survive in (5) ______ environments where water is scarce.

1. Kangaroo; 2. Concentrated; 3. Wastes; 4. Water; 5. Dry

During (1) ______, water and small molecules such as glucose, amino acids, ions, and wastes move from the blood in the (2) ______ into (3) ______ capsule. This fluid is called (4) ______ filtrate. The filtrate then enters the (5) ______ tubule, where useful substances are (6) ______ back into the blood. The remaining filtrate continues through the nephron for further processing and eventual (7) ______ as urine.

1. Filtration; 2. Glomerulus; 3. Bowman's; 4. Glomerular; 5. Proximal; 6. Reabsorbed; 7. Excretion