Cells, Genetics, Cell Division, and Classical Genetics Review

Comprehensive vocabulary review flashcards covering cell biology, organelles, nucleic acids, cell division, and classical genetics principles from the lecture.

Criteria for Life

The essential biological characteristics required to be classified as living: the ability to grow, possessing an independent energy metabolism, the ability to reproduce, being constructed of cells, and reacting to the surrounding environment.

Virus

An entity not directly considered living because it lacks independent reproduction and must rely on another living organism to reproduce.

Photosynthesis

The chemical process by which plants use sunlight, carbon dioxide ($\text{CO}_2$), and water ($\text{H}_2\text{O}$) to produce glucose ($\text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6$) and oxygen ($\text{O}_2$).

Cellular Respiration

The metabolic reaction in which glucose ($\text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6$) and oxygen ($\text{O}_2$) are broken down into carbon dioxide ($\text{CO}_2$), water ($\text{H}_2\text{O}$), and usable energy.

Plant Cell

A eukaryotic cell characterized by possessing a cellulose cell wall, chloroplasts with chlorophyll, and a central vacuole, in addition to common eukaryotic organelles.

Animal Cell

A eukaryotic cell that contains lysosomes for cellular digestion, lacks a rigid cell wall and chloroplasts, and is bounded by a flexible cell membrane.

Cell Membrane

A layer surrounding the cell that regulates which substances are transported into and out of the cell; present in both plant and animal cells.

Cell Nucleus

The organelle that encloses and protects the cell's genetic material ($\text{DNA}$); present in both plant and animal cells.

Mitochondria

The power plants of the cell where cellular respiration occurs to release energy; found in both plant and animal cells and containing their own smaller $\text{DNA}$ molecules.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

A specialized membrane structure that manages internal transport within the cell; present in both plant and animal cells.

Ribosomes

The protein factories of the cell where proteins are assembled; present in both plant and animal cells.

Cytoplasm / Cytosol

The fluid that fills the interior of the cell, suspending organelles and biochemical reactants; present in both plant and animal cells.

Golgi Apparatus

An organelle that stores, sorts, and transports substances into and out of the cell; present in both plant and animal cells.

Cell Wall

The outer skeleton of a plant cell composed of cellulose, providing structural integrity; present in plant cells but absent in animal cells.

Vacuole

A fluid-filled bladder that functions as a storage compartment and pressure regulator; present in plant cells but absent in animal cells.

Chloroplasts

Organelles containing chlorophyll that capture solar energy to perform photosynthesis; present in plant cells but absent in animal cells.

Lysosomes

Organelles functioning as waste disposals where large biological molecules are broken down; present in animal cells but absent in plant cells.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

The largest information-storing molecule functioning as the cell's archive, structured as two molecular chains joined in a spiraled rope ladder (double helix).

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)

A single-stranded molecular chain functioning as a working copy of $\text{DNA}$, responsible for transferring genetic information to ensure protein production.

Protein

A vital nutrient and large macromolecule composed of many linked amino acids that fold into complex structural formations.

Amino Acids

Small molecules that exist in $20$ different varieties in proteins; each has an acid group at one end and a basic group at the other, allowing them to bind into long protein chains.

Gene

A distinct segment of the $\text{DNA}$ molecule containing coding exons and non-coding introns that encodes information for a specific protein and trait.

Histones

Proteins functioning like thread spools around which $\text{DNA}$ wraps, enabling compact packaging into the cell nucleus.

Chromosome

A nuclear structure composed of a $\text{DNA}$ double helix wrapped around histone proteins, carrying genetic information to be copied and passed to new cells.

Mitosis

Standard cell division creating regular body cells through one division, producing two identical diploid daughter cells each containing $46$ chromosomes.

Meiosis

Reduction division for producing gametes through two consecutive cell divisions, yielding daughter cells with a halved chromosome count ($23$ chromosomes).

Asexual Reproduction

Reproduction from a single parent yielding offspring with identical genetic makeup (clones), which is faster and demands less energy and resources.

Sexual Reproduction

Reproduction resulting from fertilization (fusion of an egg and sperm cell), yielding novel combinations of genes, fostering genetic diversity, and spreading survival risks.

Egg Cell

The female gamete, which is larger, formed in smaller quantities, and requires greater energy and resource investment to produce compared to sperm.

Sperm Cell

The male gamete, which is smaller in size, produced in larger quantities, and requires fewer resources per cell to form than an egg cell.

Sex Chromosomes

The pair of chromosomes determining biological sex within the human complement of $46$ chromosomes ($44$ autosomes plus $2$ sex chromosomes): females carry $\text{XX}$ and males carry $\text{XY}$.

Allele

A specific variant of a gene that codes for a phenotypic trait, commonly represented by letters such as $B$ or $b$.

Dominant Allele

An allele that only requires a single copy to be expressed phenotypically (e.g., $Bb$ yields brown eye color when $B$ is dominant).

Recessive Allele

An allele that must be present in two copies ($bb$) to be expressed in the phenotype, as its expression is overridden by a dominant allele.

Genotype

The specific genetic allele composition of an individual for a particular trait (e.g., $BB$, $Bb$, or $bb$).

Phenotype

The observable physical expression or appearance of a trait (e.g., brown eyes or blue eyes).

Monohybrid Cross (Homozygous Dominant × Homozygous Recessive)

A Punnett square cross between a blue-eyed father ($bb$) and a homozygous brown-eyed mother ($BB$), where $100\%$ of the offspring inherit the $Bb$ genotype and have brown eyes.

Monohybrid Cross (Heterozygous × Homozygous Recessive)

A Punnett square cross between a blue-eyed father ($bb$) and a heterozygous brown-eyed mother ($Bb$), producing $50\%$ brown-eyed offspring ($Bb$) and $50\%$ blue-eyed offspring ($bb$).

Plant Breeding (Växtförädling)

The selective crossing of different cultivated plant varieties to produce strains with superior, beneficial traits.

Animal Breeding (Husdjursavel)

The selective crossing of domesticated animals to yield offspring lines with traits beneficial to humans.

Mutation

An alteration in the genetic material ($\text{DNA}$) caused by replication mistakes or external agents like radiation and chemicals; transmissible to offspring only if it occurs in a gamete.