YEAR 12 PSYCH EXAM

Agonist

drugs and other medications that stimulate a neurotransmitter's activity

Anticipatory anxiety

the gradual rise in anxiety level as a person thinks about, or 'anticipates', being exposed to a phobic stimulus in the future

Anxiety

a state of physiological arousal associated with feelings of apprehension, worry or uneasiness that something is wrong or something unpleasant is about to happen

Avoidance behaviour

actions that help avert any contact, exposure or engagement with a feared object or situation

Benzodiazepine

a drug that works on the central nervous system, acting selectively on GABA receptors in the brain to increase GABA's inhibitory effects and make post-synaptic neurons resistant to excitation

Biological risk factor

originate or develop within the body and consequently may not be under our control

Biopsychosocial model

a description and explanation of mental (and physical) health in terms of the combination and interaction of biological, psychological and social factors

Breathing retraining

in relation to specific phobia, an anxiety management technique that involves teaching correct breathing habits. It is a biological intervention strategy.

Catastrophic thinking

a thinking style which involves overestimating, exaggerating or magnifying an object or situation and predicting the worst possible outcome

Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)

a type of psychotherapy that uses cognitive and behavioural strategies to treat mental health problems and disorders. Assumes that the way people feel and behave is largely a product of the way they think

Cognitive bias

a tendency to think in a way that involves errors of judgment and faulty decision- making

Cognitive model

in relation to phobia, an approach to understanding and treatment or management that emphasises how the individual processes information about a phobic stimulus and related events, particularly their cognitive biases and 'distorted' ways of thinking

Continuum

a representation of something that varies or changes over time without clear dividing points, such as consciousness and mental health

Emotional wellbeing

generally refers to how well we feel about our ability to control our emotions and express them appropriately and comfortably

Evidence-based interventions

treatments that have been found to be effective on the basis of valid and reliable research studies

External factor

factor that originates outside a person

Fear hierarchy

a list of feared objects or situations, ranked from least to most anxiety-producing

Functioning

generally refers to how well an individual independently performs or operates in their environment

Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA)

the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system

Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) dysfunction

failure to produce, release or receive the correct amount of GABA needed to regulate neuronal transmission in the brain. A type of biological risk factor.

Internal factor

influences that originate inside or within a person

Long-term potentiation

the long-lasting strengthening of synaptic connections, resulting in enhanced or more effective neurotransmission across the synapse. A type of biological risk factor in specific phobia.

Memory bias

the distorting influences of present knowledge, beliefs and feelings on the recollection of previous experiences

Mental disorder

a mental health state that involves a combination of thoughts, feelings and/or behaviours which are usually associated with significant personal distress and impair the ability to function effectively in everyday life

Mental health

a state of wellbeing in which an individual realises his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and is able to make a contribution to his or her community

Mental health problem

a problem or concern that affects the way a person thinks, feels and/or behaves but is typically mild and temporary, of a shorter duration than a mental disorder

Mentally healthy

being in a generally positive state

of mental wellbeing, having the ability to cope with and manage life's challenges, working productively, striving to fulfill one's goals and potential, and having a sense of connection to others and the community in general

Panic attack

period of sudden onset of intense fear or terror, often associated with feelings of impending doom

Perpetuating risk factor

maintains the occurrence of a specific mental disorder and inhibits recovery. For example, operant conditioning maintains a specific phobia.

Placebo treatment

commonly used in research studies (or 'clinical trials') to determine the effectiveness of a new or improved medication or other treatment

Precipitating risk factor

contributes to the occurrence of a specific mental disorder; present at the time of onset. Seen as a 'trigger'

Predisposing risk factor

increases susceptibility/likelihood of developing a specific mental disorder

Protective factor

any characteristic or event that reduces the likelihood of the occurrence or recurrence of a mental disorder, either on its own or when risk factors are present

Psychoeducation

the process of increasing an individual's knowledge and understanding of a mental disorder and its treatment. A type of social intervention for mental disorders such as a specific phobia.

Resilience

the ability to successfully cope with adversity, and to 'bounce back' and restore positive functioning

Risk factor

any characteristic or event that increases the likelihood of the development or progression of a mental disorder

Rumination

repeatedly thinking about or dwelling on undesirable thoughts and feelings, such as problems or bad moods, without acting to change them

Self-efficacy

an individual's belief in their capacity to execute behaviours necessary to succeed in a specific situation or accomplish a specific task

Self-stigma

the stigmatising views that individuals hold about themselves

Short-acting

in relation to a drug, remains in the bloodstream and is cleared from the body in a relatively short period of time

Social risk factors

for mental disorders originate in the external environment and interact with biological and psychological factors in influencing our mental health state

Social stigma

any aspect of an individual's identity that is devalued in a social context

Social wellbeing

generally refers to how well we

feel about our relationships and interactions with others, including our ability to establish and maintain positive relationships

Specific phobia

an anxiety disorder characterised by excessive or unreasonable fear produced by exposure to a specific feared object or situation, often leading to avoidance behaviour and interfering with everyday functioning

Stigma

a mark or sign of shame, disgrace or disapproval typically associated with a particular characteristic or attribute that sets a person apart, such as skin colour, cultural background, a disability or a mental health disorder

Stress

a state of physiological and psychological arousal produced by internal or external stressors that are perceived by the individual as challenging or exceeding their ability or resources to cope; may be acute, episodic acute or chronic

Systematic desensitisation

a behaviour therapy for treatment of specific phobia that aims to replace an undesirable response, such as fear, with a relaxation response through conditioning; the individual learns to associate being relaxed with the fear-arousing stimulus through a series of graded steps

Two-factor learning theory

a behavioural model that explains precipitation and perpetuation of phobias as a two-part process involving classical conditioning (for precipitation) and operant conditioning (for perpetuation)

Unrealistic thoughts

unhelpful thoughts triggered by anxious thoughts that can also trigger anxious thoughts

Wellbeing

our sense of 'wellness' or how well we feel about ourselves and our lives

Phobia

Circadian rhythms

A biological process that coordinates the timing of body activities over the 24 hour day-night cycle

Ultradian rhythms

Biological processes that occur in a cycle of less than 24 hours such as REM and NREM stages

NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement) (Ultradian)

Consists of three stages characterised by a progressive decline in physiological activity

• N1 transition phase between awake and sleep

• N2 Light sleep - heart rate slows, body temp drops

• N3 Deep slow-wave sleep

REM (Rapid Eye Movement) (Ultradian)

A stage characterised by quick darting of the eyes behind closed eyelids and an increase in psychological activity. It is often associated with dreaming/mind repairing

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN):

A small part of the hypothalamus that acts as the brain's master body clock.

It receives light signals from the eyes and coordinates body activities to a daily schedule of sleep and wakefulness

Melatonin

A hormone released by the pineal gland that induces drowsiness and decreases cell activity to prepare the body for sleep.

When the SCN detects low light, it signals the pineal gland to increase melatonin secretion, promoting sleep.

Bright light detection causes the SCN to inhibit melatonin release, promoting wakefulness.

Newborns (0–3 months):

Require the most sleep

14–17 hours

About 50% of this is REM sleep, which is thought to boost rapid brain growth, development, and memory consolidation

Adolescents (14–17 years):

8–10 hours

They experience a circadian phase delay, where melatonin is released roughly 1 to 2 hours later than in childhood, pushing their natural sleep onset time later into the night

Older Adults (65+ years):

7–8 hours

They often experience a decline in N3 deep sleep and may suffer from ASPD, where they feel sleepy earlier in the evening and wake earlier in the morning.

Explanation for Changes in sleep demands and patterns

As humans age, the total amount of sleep needed decreases

proportion of REM sleep declines from 50% in infancy to approx 20% in adulthood.

Older age is often associated with reduced sleep efficiency

Partial Sleep Deprivation:

The experience of achieving inadequate sleep in terms of either quantity (total) or quality (fragmented)

Affective Functioning:

mood swings, difficulty controlling emotions, crying for no reason.

Behavioural Functioning:

slower reaction times, clumsiness, impulsivity, risk-taking

Cognitive Functioning

poor concentration, reduced alertness, impaired problem-solving

Comparison to Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC)

• 17 hours of wakefulness (partial deprivation) = cognitive and affective impairments equivalent to a BAC of 0.05. (legal limit)

• 24 hours of full sleep deprivation = impairments comparable to a BAC of 0.10

Sleep Hygiene

Beneficial sleep-related behaviours and environmental conditions practiced consistently to improve sleep quality and quantity

Zeitgebers:

Environmental cues that synchronize and regulate the body’s circadian rhythm

Daylight and Blue Light (Zeitgebers)

Daylight is the primary zeitgeber for the human circadian rhythm.

Blue light is effective at suppressing melatonin.

Exposure to natural light in the morning to reset the clock

Temperature: (Zeitgebers)

Core body temperature must drop to initiate and maintain sleep.

Good hygiene includes keeping the bedroom cool.

• warm bath or shower before bed can help by causing the core temperature to drop afterward

• exercise right before bed raises the core temperature and can inhibit sleep onset.

Eating and Drinking Patterns: (Zeitgebers)

The timing of meals influences peripheral body clocks in tissues.

Consistency in meal times helps keep these clocks synchronized with the SCN

eating at irregular times disrupts the circadian rhythm.

Circadian sleep rhythm disorders

Sleep disturbances caused by a mismatch between an individual's internal biological clock and the external environment’s required sleep-wake schedule

• shift work

• DSPS

• ASPD

treated by bright light therapy.

DSPS - Delayed sleep phase syndrone

Circadian rhythm disorder

delay in the timing of sleep onset and awakening compared with the timing that is desired.

ASPD- advanced sleep phase disorder

advance in the timing of sleep onset and awakening compared with the timing that is desired.

Circadian rhythm disorder

Consciousness

The subjective awareness of your own mental processes, including thoughts, feelings, sensations and awareness of the external world around you.

PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSTRUCT BECAUSE:

It cannot be objectively observed or measured through the collection of data, but is widely understood to exist. It is impossible to know what others are experiencing.

Psychological construct

A concept that cannot be objectively observed or measured directly through the collection of data but is widely understood to exist.

Normal waking consciousness NWC

A state associated with being aware of our internal and external environments

• awake and have a regular level of awareness

• can manage attention and behaviour

• thoughts and perceptions are clear

EG) reading a book, chatting, having dinner

Altered state of consciousness

Any state that differs in awareness compared to NWC, either higher or lower levels.

A change in mental processing where perceptions/thinking may be altered.

• naturally occurring or induced

Naturally occurring altered state of consciousness

An altered state of consciousness that occurs without any external influence

• (sleep, flow state, fatigue)

Induced altered state of consciousness

An altered state of consciousness that has been brought about on purpose

• (alcohol, anaesthesia)

Sleep

A reversible behavioural state of unawareness, unresponsiveness and disengagement from the external environment.

NREM Non-Rapid Eye Movement

Type of sleep characterised by a progressive decline in physiological activity.

• 3 stages (N1, N2, N3)

• takes up around 80% of the sleep cycle in people school-aged +

N1- transactional phase between wakefulness and sleep

N2- light sleep where psychological processes slow

N3- deep sleep, where psychological processes are the slowest (slow wave sleep), most difficult to wake

NREM N1

transactional phase between wakefulness and light sleep

• HR, body temp and brain activity begin to slow

• can be easily woken up

• quickly moves into N2

NREM 2

light sleep, where psychological responses continue to slow down

• still can wake relatively easily

• Bursts of brain activity help resist being woken by environmental stimuli

• stage that experienced the most throughout a sleep episode

NREM 3

Deep sleep, where psychological responses are at their slowest

• most difficult to wake up

• slowest brain activity ( aka: slow-wave sleep)

• experienced more in the first half of the night than the second.

• As an episode progresses, a person experiences less N3 sleep, towards the final 1-2 cycles, possibly none at all

• body repairs itself

REM Rapid Eye Movement

Type of sleep characterised by quick darting of the eyes behind closed eyelids and an increase in psychological activity.

• brain activity resembles wakefulness

• HR and RR increase

• voluntary muscles are seemingly paralysed

• Most vivid and memorable dreams occur

• Periods occur at the end of each sleep cycle (gets longer and closer together as the episode progresses)

• More REM in the second half of the sleep episode

• differs across ages

• typically 20% of sleep episodes

• Mind repairs itself

Electroencephalography EEG -objective

A technique that detects, amplifies and records electrical activity of the brain.

• attached to a peroso’s scalp

• brain wave recordings produced by EEG are summaries of the activity of thousands of neurons in the area

Electromyography EMG -objective

A technique that detects, amplifies and records the electrical activity of muscles.

• records strength of electrical activity occurring in muscles, which indicates a change in tone and activity - higher levels = more alert we tend to be

• Attached to skin above any muscles of interest

Electro-oculargargraph EOG - objective

A technique that detects, amplifies and records the electrical activity of eye muscles that control eye movements.

• used to measure changes in eye movements, particularly in REM

• electrodes attached to skin at the side of the eyes

Sleep diaries - subjective

Self-reported records of an individual’s sleep and waking time activities, patterns and habits.

Video monitoring - subjective

A sleep study tool used to collect qualitative visual and audio information about a person’s sleep.

• posture

• tossing/turning

• sleep walking/talking

Regulation of sleep wake patterns

TWO TYPES;

• circadian rhythm

• ultradian rhythm

biological rhythms that are controlled by biological mechanisms involving cyclic changes in bodily functions that repeat over time in the same order.

Circadian rhythm

Biological processes that coordinate the timing of body activities over a 24-hour period

• controls sleep-wake cycle, release of hormones, and regulation of body temp

• develops and undergoes changes over the lifespan

Ultradian rhythm

Biological processes that coordinate the timing of body activities over a period less than 24 hours

• cycle repeatedly over the day

• HR, digestion, BP, appetite

• sleep cycles = ultradian rhythms

Suprachiasmatic nucleus SCN

The master body clock in the hypothalamus which regulates body activities to a daily schedule of sleep/wake

• sends signals to regulate activities in the body and keep it functioning to a daily sleep-wake schedule.

• sensitive to light

• influenced by zeitgebers

Zeitgebers

An environmental cue that can regulate the body’s circadian rhythm

(light, temp, eating patterns)

Melatonin

A hormone that induces drowsiness and decreases cell activity.

• When the eyes don’t detect light, the SCN sends messages to the pineal gland to release melatonin.

• ensures sleep is connected to nighttime

• allows circadian rhythms to be synchronised with the outside world and create stable cycles that enable you to feel awake during the day and fall asleep at night

Sleep across the life span

Newborns 14-17 hrs/ REM 50%- don’t have an established circadian rhythm, erratic sleeping patterns, and sleep distributed across the 24h day. require highest amount of sleep for rapid growth and development.

Infants (4m+) 12-16hrs/ REM 30-60% - Sleep becomes more nocturnal and develops a fairly consistent circadian rhythm.

Adolescents 8-10hrs/ REM 20% - experience a shift in circadian rhythm due to a hormonally determined shift in melatonin release ½ hours later than other age groups, which can result in a delayed sleep phase syndrome due to not feeling tired until later in the evening.

Adult 7-8hrs/ REM 20% - After adolescence, the circadian rhythm returns to a more normal timing, and most experience a consistent rhythm if following a regular routine. N3 begins to decline, replaced by N2 sleep. melatonin concentrations decline over adulthood

Old adults 7-8hrs/ REM 18-20% - May prefer an earlier bedtime, therefore waking earlier in the mornings.

Lifestyle, health issues, decreased social interactions and increased medication use can alter sleep patterns.

Partial sleep deprivation

The experience of inadequate sleep in terms of quality and quantity can cause negative effects on a person’s ABC functioning

Factors contributing:

• consuming food, caffeine, drugs, alcohol

• work/school

• stress

• medical conditions

• uncomfortable sleeping environment

• social influences

Affective functioning

A person’s experience of their emotions.

when sleep deprived, there may be:

• Trouble regulating/controlling emotions

• mood swings/emotional bursts