LAB EXAM 2

Root cap, used for protection and gravity orientation

meristem above

Cortex cells, starch granules inside

Meristemic region, mitosis + cytokinesis occuring

Meristemic region

Zone of elongation, cells being stretched out

Monocot Root (Epidermis, cortex, endodermis w/ casparian strip, vascular tissue

1. Phloem and xylem arranged in a ring in the endodermis

Yellow = endodermis, green = cortex w/ starch, red = phloem, blue = xylem

Green = phloem (sieve tube elements), yellow = xylem, blue = companion cells (adjacent to phloem, nucleus)

1. Eudicot root, xylem + phloem in the center

   1.  green = cortex

Eudicot root, blue = endodermis, green = cortex cells w starch, yellow = xylem, red = phloem

Monocot stem

1. Epidermis outside

2. red = phloem, yellow = xylem, blue = air space (irregular shape)

1. Vascular bundle

   1. Blue = xylem, red = air space, yellow = sieve tube element, green = companion cell

Vascular bundles close to epidermis, likely Eudicot stem

Green = xylem, red = phloem, blue = vascular cambium

Tree rings

1. Vascular cambium

2. yellow arrow = annuli, yellow = phloem

3. primary xylem in center, rings = secondary xylem

1. Brackets in annuli = spring and summer wood

   1. Spring = inner, ideal growth conditions

   2. summer = outer

Eudicot = left, monocot = right (no annuli)

1. Leaf, likely monocot

   1. red = upper epidermis, yellow = stoma (in lower epidermis), red circle = vascular bundle, blue = lower epidermis

Eudicot leaf

1. Blue bracket = spongy mesophyll, yellow bracket = palisade mesophyll, red = vascular bundle, yellow arrow = cuticle (waxy layer)

2. Palisade usually oriented beneath upper epidermis (top of leaf)

1. Eudicot leaf

   1. Blue = space, black = vascular bundle

   2. Yellow = mesophyll (spongy and palisade)

Stoma (blue arrow), yellow = guard cells

Stoma = blue arrow, yellow = guard cells

1. Stoma opens when guard cells are full of water

   1. Light triggers protons to be pumped out → K⁺ enters and negative ion wants to follow. Water and ion potential goes down. → guard cells swell

   2. A lot of solute = negative solute potential = negative water potential

   3. Water potential low in atmosphere = transpiration

Hyphae

Gametangia

Sporophyte, diploid sporangium (Allomyces)

Rhizopus, asexual reproduction (sporangia made without other mating type)

Rhizopus, sexual reproduction

white = hyphae, yellow = zygosporangium (diploid), blue = soon to be zorosporangia

Ascomycota

Red = ascus, blue = ascospores (sexual)

Aspergillus, Phylum Ascomycota

1. blue = conidia, red = conidiophore

Ascomycota, Morel mushroom (ascocarp)

1. pits = sacs of sac fungi

Agaricus, Basidiomycota,( basidiocarp)

1. yellow = gills

2. Blue = Stem (or Stipe)

3. Red = Cap (or Pileus)

Agaricus

Gills

yellow = basidiospores

sexual

?

Yellow Arrow: Basidiospores

Blue Arrow: Basidium

Basidia with basidiospores

Hyphae below fungi

Basidiomycota

Shelf Fungus

?

1. Lichen cross section, Ascomycota

   1. mint = hyphae

   2. yellow = photosynthetic symbionts

   3. red = ascocarp

Lichen Specimen (Macroscopic view)

Lichen

1. Convergence with plants

2. Photosynthetic symbionts provide products (plus N2 if cyanobacteria)

Phylum Porifera

Sponge

1. asymmetrical and cellular grade construction (no real tissue)

2. acoelomate (lacks a fluid-filled body cavity (a coelom))

1. Spicules

   1. Calcium carbonate or Silica

1. Spicules

   1. Calcium carbonate or Silica

Phylum Gnidaria

Class Hydrozoa

Hydra

Phylum Gnidaria

Class Hydrozoa

Obelia

Yellow: Gonozooid - Structures inside will bud of as medusae

Blue: Gastrozooid - For eating, contains tentacles for capturing food

Phylum Gnidaria

Class Hydrozoa

Obellia

Yellow = mouth/anus

blue = tentacles (gastrozooid)

Radial symmetry, medusa form of a cnidarian

Hydrozoan sample, colony/composite of several organisms

1. Gnidara, Class Scyphozoa, Aurelia

   1. Planular larvae

1. Scyphistoma, polyp stage

Strobila (young stacked medusae)

Ephyra, juvenile medusa, Aurellia

1. Sea fan, Class Anthozoa, Phylum Gnidaria

1. Corals, Calcium carbonate

   1. Colored when alive because of zooxanthellae (dinoflagellates)

Coral

Coral

Phylum Platyhelminthes (flat form) - free-living (digestive system)

1. Blue = gastrovascular cavity (leads to mouth/anus), “branches” = diverticula

2. Yellow = pharynx = long appendage that extends out from body to get food from the environment

   1. early in the digestive track

1. Class Turbellaria, Planaria

   1. Blue = ocellus (photoreceptor to detect light, moves away from light)

   2. Yellow = auricle (chemosensory organs = detect chemicals in environment)

1. Parasitic flatwork (fluke), Phylum Platyhelminthes, Class Trematoda, Clonorchis sinensis

   1. Blue = oral sucker (attaches to host’s bile duct)

   2. yellow = sucker (acetabulum, attaches to tissue of host)

   3. mint = uterus

   4. orange = testes

1. Fluke - anterior Phylum Platyhelminthes, Class Trematoda, Clonorchis sinensis

   1. blue = sucker

   2. yellow = pharynx

   3. mint = intestines

1. Fluke - posterior (hermaphroditic) Phylum Platyhelminthes, Class Trematoda, Clonorchis sinensis

   1. mint = ovary

   2. yellow = seminal receptacles (sperm received here)

   3. blue = uterus

   4. orange = yolk glands (nutrition for organisms in uterus)

1. orange = testis?

2. blue = intestines

1. Tapeworm, Phylum Platyhelminthes, Class Cestoda

   1. small bracket (head) = scolex

      1. hooks and suckers = adheres to host’s intestinal lining

   2. big bracket = proglottid segments

1. Tapeworm, Phylum Platyhelminthes, Class Cestoda

   1. blue = hookers

   2. Orange = suckers

Proglottid Segment

1. Tapeworm, Phylum Platyhelminthes, Class Cestoda

   1. Orange: Testis

   2. Blue: Ovaries

Uterus

1. Phylum Brachiopoda (not Bivalvia)

   1. Valves are different sizes

   2. Only brachiopods have an opening in the back for the pedicle = for attachmen

1. Phylum Annelida, Class oligochaete

   1. Clitellum = makes cocoon-like structure to deposit eggs

   2. Hermaphroditic

1. Phylum Annelida, Class oligochaete
   
   Annelid

   1. green = circular muscle

   2. blue arrow = longitudinal muscle (alternately contracts/relaxes with circular)

   3. yellow = coelom (fluid filled cavity)

   4. red = typhlosole? = increases SA

   5. Bracket: Intestine

Earthworm

1. right = anterior

2. green = intestine

3. yellow = gizzard (striated muscles)

4. blue = crop = stores food

Metamerism = same structures in every segment

1. blue =  nephridia = excretion/osmoregulation (like kidneys)

Nephridia 

1. red lines = blood vessels

2. closed circulatory system

Yellow = intestine

blue = ventral nerve cord (splits into nerves that reach suprapharyngeal ganglia)

blue = cerebral ganglia

yellow = circumpharyngeal connectives (go around the pharynx)

green = pharynx

Stained micrograph of nervous system

1. blue = ventral nerve cord

2. green = connectives

3. yellow = cerebral ganglia

blue = seminal vesicles, yellow = seminal receptacles

1. Class Polychaetes, phylum Annelida

   1. blue = parapodia w/ bristles

1. Polychaete worm

   1. sessile lifestyle = living in tube

1. Sea mouse (Polychate)

   1. ventral surface, segmentation

1. Phylum Annelida, Class Hirudinea, Leech

   1. yellow = anterior sucker

   2. blue = posterior sucker

1. Stained radula

   1. Radulae found inside mouth of squid and snails (mollusca)

1. Class Polyplacophora, phylum Mollusca

   1. no metamerism

Snail shells

1. Bivalvia

   1. no opening for pedicle

Phylum Mollusca

Class Cephalopoda

Species: Loligo

1. green = siphon (water pushed out)

2. water enters through opening in mantle

3. blue = tentacle

4. green = arm

Phylum Mollusca

Class Cephalopoda

Species: Loligo

beak

Phylum Mollusca

Class Cephalopoda

Species: Loligo

eye

Phylum Mollusca

Class Cephalopoda

Species: Loligo

Tentacles

Phylum Mollusca

Class Cephalopoda

Species: Loligo

Suckers

Phylum Mollusca

Class Cephalopoda

Species: Loligo

Sucker ring teeth (made of chitin)

Phylum Mollusca

Class Cephalopoda

Species: Loligo

yellow = fin, blue = mantle

Phylum Mollusca

Class Cephalopoda

Species: Loligo

1. pigmented spots = chromatophores = used for camouflage, signaling, communication

Phylum Mollusca

Class Cephalopoda

Species: Loligo

Yellow = interlocks = locks in place to give the mantle stability

Phylum Mollusca

Class Cephalopoda

Species: Loligo

1. yellow = digestive gland/hepatopancreas = makes digestive enzymes

2. green = intestine

3. blue = ink sac (both empty out of the siphon)

Phylum Mollusca

Class Cephalopoda

Species: Loligo

Gil = gas exchange (a lot of surface area)

Phylum Mollusca

Class Cephalopoda

Species: Loligo

1. Female squid

   1. yellow = nidamental gland = produces casing for eggs

   2. blue = ovary

Phylum Mollusca

Class Cephalopoda

Species: Loligo

yellow = gil, blue = nidamental glands, green = ovary