Psych 1X03 Midterm

descriptive statistics

Presents Data at a glace

Histogram

Type of graph used to report the number of times groups of values appear in a data set

frequency distribution

Graph illustrating the distribution of how frequently values appear in a data set

Normal Distribution

Smooth, symmetrical bell-shaped curve containing a single peak

Standard deviation

A measure of the average between the data points from the mean

inferential statistics

Statistics that allow us to use results from samples to make inferences about overall, underlying populations

T-test

Statistical test that considers each data point from both groups to calculate probability that 2 samples were drawn from the same population

P-Value

A value expressing the probability calculated by the T-test

> 5% P-value

Not significant P-value

Significant P-value

Statistical Significance

When difference between 2 groups is due to come true differences between properties of the 2 groups and not simply due to random variation

R = 1

perfect positive correlation

r=-1

perfect negative correlation

Correlation is...

1. not always meaningful

2. correlation is not always causation

independent variable

Variable manipulated by scientists

dependent variable

variable being observed by scientists

Practice effect

Improved performance over the course of an experiment due to becoming more experienced

between-subjects design

when one group acts as the control group

Confounding Variable

a variable other than the independent variable that has an effect on the results

random sample

a sample at random from the entire population, reducing the chance of bias

random assignment

assigning subjects to either experimental or control groups at random, avoiding biases

Participant bias

When a participant's actions in an experiment influence the results outside of the manipulation of the experiment

Blinding

when participatnt do not know whether they belong to experimental or control groupd

experimental Bias

Actions by the experimenter, intentionally or not, to promote the results they hope to achieve

double-blind studies

Experiments in which neither the participants nor the people analyzing the results know who is in the control group

classical conditioning

the learning of a contingency between a particular signal and a later event that are paired in time and/or space

non-associative learning

Information about one external stimulus

Habituation

A decrease in behavioural responding to a repeated stimulus

Sensitization

an increase in behavioural responding to a repeated stimulus

Associative learning

Learning how 2 or more pieces of information are related

Operant Conditioning

Learning that behaviour leads to a specific outcome

Long-term Potentiation (LTP)

strengthening of a synaptic connection between neurons

contingent relationship

When an organizm learns the association between a signal and an event

Conditions of a contingent relationship

Maintained as long as the conditional stimulus continues to be a reliable cue for the unconditional stimulus

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

Unconditionally and automatically triggers a response in the absence of learning

Example of Unconditioned Stimulus

food

unconditioned response (UR)

Specific response that an unconditioned stimulus triggers

example of unconditioned response

salivation

Conditional Stimulus

Paired with the unconditioned stimulus to produce a learned contingency

example of Conditional Stimulus

tones before dog is presented with food

conditioned response (CR)

Response that occurs once a contingency between the CS and US has been learned

example of conditioned response

dog salivating to sound alone

Acquisition

The process by which a contingency between a CS and US is learned

Extinctions

Loss of conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus no longer predicts the unconditioned stimulus

spontaneous recovery

Sudden recovery of a conditional response following a rest period after extinction

spontaneous recovery graph

Are contingencies unlearned?

No, extinction promotes a learned inhibitory response

Stimulus Generalization

The process by which stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus will also elicit a conditioned response

Stimulus Discrimination

Restricts the range of conditional stimuli that can elicit a response

CS+

predicts presence of unconditional stimulus

CS-

Predicts the absence of unconditional stimulus

Phobia

an exaggerated, intense and persistent fear of certain situations, activities, things, or people

Causes of phobias

1) Traumatic experiences

2) experience of others

implosive therapy

confront phobia with absence of the US

systematic desensitization

Gradual exposure to the fear stimulus

compensatory response

allows the body to prepare for the challenges of homeostasis

Examples of compensatory response

cues from environment consistent with drug use

Instrumental conditioning

Explicit training between voluntary behaviours and their consequences

Edward L. Thorndike

law of effect - rewarded behaviour is likely to reoccur

stamping in and stamping out

determines whether a behaviour was maintained or eliminated respectively

Reinforcer

Any stimulus, which when presented after a response leads to a change in rate of that response

Reward training

presentation of a positive reinforcer, increases behaviour

Punishment Training

presentation of a negative reinforcer, decreases behaviour

omission training

removal of a positive reinforcer, decreases behaviour

escape training

removing a negative reinforcer, increase in behaviour

acquisition

Learning contingency between response and its consequences

Autoshaping

behaviours can be learned without guidance by researcher

shaping by successive approximations

complex behaviour is organised into smaller steps

Discriminative stimulus (SD)

signals when a contingency between and response and reinforcements is valid

S-delta (s-)

A signal which indicates when a contingency is not valid

Difference between CS and SD?

CS is paired with US, and elicits and involuntary response

SD is paired with response-reinforcer outcome, sets the occasion

continuous reinforcement

Each trial response leads to reinforcer

Partial reinforcement

not every response elicits appropriate reinfrocer

fixed-ratio schedule

reward after a specific amount of work

Ratio strain

if schedule is too stingy, the subject will stop responding

Pattern of fixed-ratio graph

staircase (pause and run)

Variable ratio

rewards are provided following a variable amount of work or length of time

Pattern of variable ratio graph

straight line, slop = average

fixed-interval schedule

reinforcement is delivered following first response after a set interval of time

Pattern of fixed-interval graph

Scalloped

varibale interval schedule

reinforcement at an average amount of time

Pattern of variable interval graph

straight line

Primary reinforcer

satisfies a biological need

secondary reinforcer

established through classical conditioning

intelligence

the cognitive ability of an individual to learn from experience, reason well, remember important information, and cope with the demands of daily living

deductive reasoning

occurs when a person works from ideas and general information to arrive at specific conclusions

Inductive reasoning

moves from specific facts and observations to broader generalisation and theories

Functional Fixedness

difficulty seeing alternative uses for common objects

Reliability

produces the same result if one person takes the same test multiple times

Validity

Measures what is it supposed to be measuring

Francis Galton

Quantified intelligence through sensory motor tasks (faster response = higher intelligence)

Alfred Binet

Produced first intelligence scale

Charles Spearman

reasoned that there was one generalised intelligence (g)

Howard Garnder

Developed the theory of Multiple Intelligences (8 types)

David Wechsler

Standardised intelligence quotient

The Flynn Effect

Raw IO scores have been rising since 1932, around 9-15 points / 30 years

Causes of Flynn Effect

increased test sophistication, increased complexity of modern world, better nutrition, changes at home and school, access to education

Piaget

theorist that developed a series of stages in which an individual passes during cognitive development.

Schemea

a mental framework for interpreting the world

Assimilation

incorporation of new information into existing schemas