metabolism and urinary system

enzymatic reactions

the means through which energy is slowly released from food and transferred to special molecules for storage

most ATP is produced in____

the electron transport system

high-energy bonds

unique covalent bonds that release more energy than other covalent bonds when broken——→ what special molecules use for storage

****created through phosphorylation

phosphorylation

when a phosphate group is added to a molecule——> creates high-energy bonds

ATP (adenosine trisphosphate)

the most common high-energy bond used by cells

***contains three phosphates (hence “tri”) bonded to an adenosine molecule with high-energy bonds

—> when the third phosphate is broken down, energy is released for the cell to use

Glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate (G3P)

key three-carbon intermediate in glycolysis that serves as the direct upstream precursor to acetyl-CoA

ADP (adenosine diphosphate)

the resulting molecule from ATP breaking down to release energy

ADP can be______

phosphorylated back into ATP

energy

***measured as heat energy —→ kilocalorie

QUANTITY

**the capacity to do work

all energy is___

kinetic and potentia energy

chemical energy

the potential energy stored in chemical bonds

potential energy

the capacity to do work because energy is stored——> energy of position

kinetic energy

energy of motion

organisms convert____

chemical to kinetic energy

Catabolism

the process of breaking down macromolecules (polymers) into monomers that release energy

****GENERATE ATP

Anabolism

when complex molecules are made from simpler substances

REQUIRE ATP

metabolism

the sum of all chemical reactions in the body——> anabolism + catabolism

glycogenesis

ANABOLIC

liver converts glucose to glycogen, decreasing the bloods glucose levels

glycogenolysis

CATABOLIC

liver breaks glycogen back down to glucose, increase bloods glucose levels

gluconeogensis

ANABOLIC

liver converts protein or fat molecules into glucose

4 stages of aerobic respiration

1. glycolysis

2. formation of acetyl CoA

3. Citric Acid

4. electron transport chain/chemiosmosis

glycolysis

the process of breaking down glucose to pyruvate—-glucose is phosphorylated then split and phosphorylated again—→ enzymes then remove the phosphates and ATP is generated——→ Hydrogen pairs are removed and set to the ETS

results in 2 pyruvate, ATP, and NADH

***occurs in cell’s cytosol

***NO OXYGEN REQUIRED

Kreb’s Cycle (TCA cycle)

Acetyl CoA combines with a pre-existing 4 carbon molecule to produce citric acid with 6 carbons——→ removes hydrogen pairs that are accepted by NAD+ and FAD for transport to ETS——> 4 carbon molecules are regenerated and the cycle occurs again as another pyruvic acid from glycolysis enters the mitochondrial matrix

****results in CO2, 1 ATP, NADH, and FADH

****occurs in mitochondrial matrix

**** produces CO2—→ REQUIRES OXYGEN

Electron transport System(ETS)

Hydrogen pairs from glycolysis and TCA cycle are passed to coenzymes that separate hydrogen proton (+) from their electrons (-)——> ATP is generated with protons pass through hydrogen ion channel

***occurs in mitochondrial cristae

***produces 32 ATP from hydrogen pairs

***also produced NADH and FADH

**produces water—→ REQUIRES OXYGEN

electrons

what NADH mostly transports

3 metabolic pathways for cellular metabolism

1. glycoylsis

2. Kreb’s

3. ETS

redox reaction

name of process for when energy from chemical bonds is transferred during oxidation/reduction reactions

***occur together—→ one molecule loses energy and is oxidized while another molecule gains this energy and is reduced

reduced hydrogen

the means through which the released energy is delivered to mitochondria following carbohydrates being oxidized

released energy from oxidized carbohydrates

this energy is what was transported to the mitochondria and used to phosphorylate ADP back into ATP

three types of phosphorylation

1. substrate-level

2. oxidative

3. chemiosmosis

substrate-level phosphorylation

generation of ATP using an enzyme to transfer energy from a chemical reaction to an acceptor molecule

EX) phosphorylation of glucose into glycolysis

4 ATP in total produced

oxidative phosphorylation

generation of ATP in mitochondria using oxygen——>produces 90% of cellular ATP

EX) ATP made during Krebs

***32 to 34 ATP in total produced

Chemiosmosis (chemiosmotic phosphorylation)

production of ATP by the movement of hydrogen ions due to an electrochemical gradient

EX) ATP made in ETS

lipogenesis

the synthesis of lipids from nonlipid precursors

pyrimidines

a nitrogen compound with a single ring-shaped structure

****cytosine, thymine, uracil——> also includes nitrogenous bases that are common in nucleic acids

electron transport chain

the system made up of four respiratory protein complex, coenzyme A, and electron carriers made up of a series of cytochrome molecules responsible for aerobic energy production in cells

****also called the electron transport system——> a series of electron transporters embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane——> final and most productive stage of cellular respiration where your cells turn food into usable energy

bound to the inner mitochondrial membrane

beta-oxidation

fatty acid catabolism that produces molecules of acetyl-CoA

metabolic turnover

the continuous breakdown and replacement of organic materials within cells

why cells synthesize new organic components

• to carry out structural maintenance or repairs

• to support cell growth

• to produce secretions

• to store nutrient reserves

proteins

the most abundant organic components in the body

***cells synthesize this when energy is available—→ or when glucose and fatty acids are unavailable, cells break this down into amino acids

mitochondria are “picky eaters”

***only accept specific organic molecules for processing——> chemical reactions take place in the cytosol and take organic nutrients to break them down into smaller fragments that the mitochondria can process——→ mitochondria breaks the fragments down further, generation CO2, O2, and ATP

mitochondrial activity

involves the oxidation of high-energy carrier molecules from the citric acid cycle and the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP

energetics

the study of the flow of energy and its transformation, or change, from one form to another

oxidation

the gain of oxygen OR the loss of hydrogen OR the loss of electrons

reduction

the loss of oxygen, or the gain of hydrogen or electrons

coenzyme

acts as an intermediary that accepts electrons from one molecule and transfers them to another molecule

pyruvate

the anion formed by the dissociation of pyruvic acid, which is a three-carbon compound produced by glycolysis

***formed when pyruvic acid loses a proton

***transported into the mitochondria during aerobic respiration to be converted to acetyl-CoA

glycolysis produces____

2 pyruvate molecules with a net gain of 2 ATP molecules

cytochrome

a protein-pigment component of the electron transport chain—→ a structural relative of heme

a decrease in cytosolic NAD

this would reduce ATP production in the mitochondria——> decreased NAD would reduce the amount of pyruvate produced by glycolysis—→ less pyruvate means that the citric acid cycle would produce less ATP

citric acid in ATP production

primary role is to transfer electrons from substrates to coenzymes——> these electros provide energy to produce ATP by the electron transport chain

pyruvate in muscle cells

the key end product of glycolysis and acts as the main fuel to further ATP production

when oxygen is adequate, pyruvate enters the mitochondria and is fed into the citric acid cycle——> generates a large amount of ATP through aerobic metabolism—→ when oxygen is limited, pyruvate is instead reduce to lactate, allowing glycolysis to keep running and continue producing some ATp anaerobically

lactate

the molecule formed when pyruvate is reduced under low-oxygen conditions, allowing glycolysis to continue producing ATP anaerobically

glucose-alanine cycle

muscle used amino acids for energy, and the liver converts amino acids to glucose by gluconeogensis to keep blood glucose stable especially in the postabsorptive state

deaminated

the amino group is removed so the remaining part can be converted to pyruvic acid or acetyl-CoA for energy

transanimated

amino groups are transferred between amino acids and keto acids, often via glutamic acid, to support amino acid metabolism

tubular secretion’s role in the nephron

adds excess waste products and ions from the blood into the filtrate

fenestrated capillaries role in renal corpuscle

they allow selective filtration of blood, preventing large molecules from passing through

NAD+ being reduced to NADH during pyruvate oxidation is significant_____

because NADH carries electrons to the electron transport chain for ATP production

kidney’s hilum

where blood vessels, nerves, and the urterer enter or leave

renal pelvis

a funnel shaped cavity that collects urine from the calyces

***where major calyces are located

kidney’s raise systemic blood pressure by_____

secreting renin to activate the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system

nephron’s main function

to filter blood and produce urine

99%

the amount of filtrate that is reabsorbed and retunred to circulation

renal failure

complete cessation of kidney function—→ when the NFP is not positive

blood colloid osmotic pressure

tendency of water to move toward solution with more solutes

filtrate

the fluid produced when blood is filtered across the glomerular capillaries into the capsular space of the renal corpuscle

creatinine

a breakdown product of creatine metabolism

renal corpuscle

the initial segment of the nephron, consisting of an expanded chamber hat encloses the glomerulus

bladder

a muscular sac that distends as fluid is stored—→ contractions ejects the fluid at an appropriate time

NAD+

OXIDIZED!!! form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

a coenzyme that removes hydrogen atoms (each a proton and an electron) from organic molecules and carries their electrons

NADH

REDUCED!!! form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

***when NAD+ accepts 2 hydrogen atoms (2 electrons)—→ removed from a donor molecule—→ becomes an energy rich coenzyme that delivers these electrons to the electron transport chain for ATP production

FADH

REDUCED!!! form of flavin adenine dinucleotide

****similar to NADH, FAD accepts 2 hydroen atoms and reduces—→ becomes a energy-rich coenzyme that carries high-energy electrons to the electron transport chain to be used for ATP

substrate

the reactant in an enzymatic reaction——> the molecule that an enzyme binds and then converts into a specific product

cellulose

chemical name for fiber

***gives vegetables and fruits their structural integrity

***we do not digest it but use it to aid in digestion

carbohydrate

1 carbon + 1 oxygen + 2 hydrogen

first phase of glycolysis (endo)

energy investment

uses energy to form G3P—- breaking glucose molecule (6 carbon) down and rearranged to form 2 molecules of G3P (glyceraldehyde - 3 - phosphate)

second phase of glycolysis (exo)

captures energy——> from the process of utilizing 2 molecules of G3P metabolize 6 carbon sugar glucose into 2X pyruvate molecule (6 carbon each(

ATP production is_____

CONSTANTLY occurring in cells because the ATP is ALWAYS being used s soon as its made

formation of acetocoenzyme A

***Occurs in mitochondria

***what links glycolysis to kreb’s cycle

pyruvate produced from glycolysis is converted to acetyl CoA through oxidization——> one carbon is removed and released as CO2——> electrons are transferred to NAD+ forming NADH

—> the remaining 2 carbon molecule binds to coenzyme A, forming acetyl CoA

urinary system maintains____

optimal functioning of body fluid (blood volume) and composition, prevents dehydrates and removes waste products

EVERYTHING pertaining to fluids!!! especially waste products

urine

fluid that contains water, ions, and small soluble compounds——> leave kidneys through urinary tract

components of urinary tract

• two ureters

• one urinary bladder

• one urethra

kidney main function

***Major work of urinary system

***regulation of blood ionic composition (sodium, potassium, chloride)

• regulation of pH

• regulation of blood volume

• regulation of blood pressure

• maintenance of blood osmolarity

• production of hormones (calcitrol and erythropoietin)

• excretion of metabolic wastes and foreign substances

the major function of the urinary system _____

are excretion, elimination, and homeostatic regulation

the volume of water in our blood____

places a great role in increasing and decreasing our blood pressure

osmolarity

amount of substances that are dissolved in blood

excretion

removal of metabolic wastes of body fluids

elimination

the discharge of these wastes out of the body

homeostatic regulation

in reference to the volume and solute concentration

• regulating blood volume and blood pressure

• regulating plasma concentrations of sodium, potassium, chloride, and other ions

• helping to stabilize blood pH

• conserving valuable nutrients

• assisting the liver

kidney location

RETROPERITONEAL——→ partly protected by ribs 11 and 12

behind our liver, pancreas, and stomach

****posterior peritoneum

fibrous renal capsule (outer layer)

a layer of collagen fibers that covers the outer surface of the entire kidney

perinephric fat (middle layer)

a thick layer of adipose tissue that surround the fibrous renal capsule

renal fascia (innermoster layer)

a dense fibrous outer layer that anchors the kidney to surrounding structures

***collagen fibers extend outward from the fibrous capsule through the fatty layer (perinephric fat) to this layer

**Posteriorly, the renal fascia fuses with the deep fascia surrounding the muscles of the body wall

**Anteriorly, the renal fascia forms a thick layer that fuses with the peritoneum

collagen fibers from the renal fascia

hangs each kidney and is packed in a soft cushiono f adipose tissue

floating kidney

when the suspensory fibers break or become detached——> a slight bump or hit can displace the kidney and stress the attached vessels and ureter

***May cause pain or other problems from the distortion of the ureter or blood vessels

renal sinus

internal cavity within the kidney

renal cortex

a superficial region of the kidney that is in contact with the fibrous capsule

***urine production, filtration, and absorption

renal medulla

consists of 6 to 18 renal pyramids

***urine production, filtration, and absorption

renal pyramids

***cone-shaped

base of each touches the cortex

***has a series of fine grooves that converge at the renal papilla