Introductory Psychology: Foundations, Research Methods, Biological Bases, and Genetics

Comprehensive practice vocabulary flashcards covering introductory psychology, scientific methodology, experimental design, neuronal transmission, gross brain anatomy, genetics, and behavioural neuroscience.

Psychology

The scientific study of behaviour and the mind.

Empirical Evidence

Evidence gained through experience and observation, including evidence from manipulating or tinkering around with conditions and observing the results.

Mind-Body Dualism

The philosophical belief that the mind is a spiritual entity separate from the body and not subject to physical laws governing the body.

Monism

The philosophical belief that the mind and body are one, meaning mental events correspond directly to physical events within the brain.

British Empiricism

A philosophical school of thought holding that all ideas and knowledge are gained empirically through the senses, making observation more valid than pure reason.

Structuralism

An early psychological school of thought founded by Wilhelm Wundt that analyzed the mind in terms of its basic components or elements.

Introspection

A research method used by structuralists involving looking within to describe inner sensory experiences when exposed to various stimuli.

Functionalism

An early psychological approach holding that psychology should study the functions of consciousness and how mental processes help organisms adapt to their environment.

Psychoanalysis

A theory and form of psychotherapy developed by Sigmund Freud centered on the analysis of internal, primarily unconscious psychological forces and conflicts.

Defence Mechanisms

Psychological techniques that help individuals cope with anxiety and the pain of traumatic experiences by managing internal impulses.

Repression

A primary defence mechanism that protects an individual by keeping unacceptable impulses, feelings, and memories submerged in the unconscious mind.

Law of Effect

Edward Thorndike's principle stating that responses followed by satisfying consequences become more likely to recur, whereas those followed by unsatisfying consequences become less likely to recur.

Behaviourism

A school of thought emphasizing environmental control of behaviour through learning, focusing strictly on observable actions rather than unobservable inner consciousness.

Cognitive Behaviourism

A viewpoint advocated by Albert Bandura proposing that learning experiences and the environment influence behaviour primarily by affecting an individual's thoughts.

Self-Actualization

An inborn humanistic drive toward reaching one's full individual potential, emphasized by theorists like Abraham Maslow.

Positive Psychology

A movement founded by Martin Seligman examining human strengths, fulfillment, and optimal living to create a happy life.

Gestalt Psychology

A German school of thought arguing that the mind organizes elements of experience into unified perceptions, such that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

Two-Eyed Seeing

A framework that provides a way to integrate Indigenous and Western approaches in understanding how culture shapes thought processes and perspectives.

Sociobiology

An evolutionary approach arguing that complex social behaviours (such as aggression, competition, and nurturing) are evolved adaptations geared toward genetic survival.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to view past events as having been obvious or predictable after learning their outcome, leading to after-the-fact explanations.

Law of Parsimony

A scientific principle stating that if two theories explain and predict the same phenomenon equally well, the simpler theory is preferred.

Operational Definition

A definition that translates an abstract concept into an observable, measurable variable by specifying the exact procedures used to produce or measure it.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency of research participants to respond in a socially acceptable manner rather than according to how they truly feel or act.

Unobtrusive Measures

Measurement approaches that record behaviour in a way that keeps participants unaware that their responses are being evaluated.

Stratified Random Sampling

A sampling procedure where a population is divided into subgroups based on specific characteristics, and individuals are chosen randomly from each subgroup in proportional numbers.

Bidirectionality Problem

An interpretive problem in correlational research where it is unknown whether variable $X$ caused variable $Y$, variable $Y$ caused variable $X$, or both influenced each other.

Third-Variable Problem

An interpretive issue in correlational research where an unmeasured variable $Z$ causes changes in both variables $X$ and $Y$, creating a spurious association.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistic ranging from $\text{-}1.00$ to $+1.00$ that indicates the direction and strength of the statistical association between two variables.

Independent Variable

The factor that is manipulated or controlled by the experimenter to examine its causal effect.

Dependent Variable

The factor measured by the experimenter that is hypothesized to be influenced by the independent variable.

Counterbalancing

A procedure in repeated-measures designs where the presentation order of conditions is varied across participants to eliminate order and practice effects.

Confounding Variable

An extraneous factor that is intertwined with the independent variable in such a way that its specific effects on the dependent variable cannot be separated.

Double-Blind Procedure

A research control procedure in which both the participant and the experimenter interacting with them are kept unaware of which condition the participant has been assigned to.

Meta-Analysis

A statistical procedure combining the quantitative findings of multiple independent studies on the same topic to determine overall significance and effect size.

Diffusion of Responsibility

A psychological state in which each bystander in an emergency feels a diminished sense of personal obligation to intervene due to the presence of others.

Dendrites

Branchlike receiving fibres extending from the neuronal cell body that pick up incoming chemical signals from neighbouring neurons.

Axon

A single extension projecting from the soma that conducts electrical nerve impulses away from the cell body toward other cells.

Glial Cells

Support cells in the nervous system that hold neurons in place, transport nutrients, form myelin sheaths, and absorb toxins and metabolic wastes.

Nodes of Ranvier

Regular gaps where the myelin sheath is thin or absent along an axon, allowing nerve impulses to skip from node to node via saltatory conduction.

Resting Potential

The stable electrical voltage difference across the neuronal membrane at rest, typically measuring approximately $\text{-}70\,\text{mV}$ inside relative to the outside.

Depolarization

The sudden shift of the neuron's membrane potential from negative toward positive, driven by the rapid influx of positively charged sodium ($\text{Na}^+$) ions.

Action Potential

A brief, all-or-none electrical nerve impulse generated along the axon when the membrane potential depolarizes past the threshold of approximately $\text{-}55\,\text{mV}$, peaking around $+40\,\text{mV}$.

Absolute Refractory Period

The brief recovery phase immediately following an action potential during which the membrane is entirely unexcitable and unable to trigger another impulse.

Relative Refractory Period

The interval following the absolute refractory period when the neuron is hyperpolarized, requiring a stronger stimulus than normal to fire an action potential.

All-or-None Law

The principle stating that an action potential occurs at uniform and maximum intensity if threshold is reached, or does not occur at all.

Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP)

A graded depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane caused by the opening of sodium ($\text{Na}^+$) channels, moving the cell closer to its action potential threshold.

Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP)

A graded hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane caused by the outflow of potassium ($\text{K}^+$) or inflow of chloride ($\text{Cl}^-$) ions, moving the cell further from threshold.

Reuptake

The deactivation mechanism whereby released neurotransmitter molecules are reabsorbed back into the presynaptic axon terminal.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A neurotransmitter operating at neuromuscular junctions to stimulate muscle movement and active within neural circuits related to memory formation.

Dopamine (DA)

A neurotransmitter mediating voluntary motor control, motivation, reward circuitry, emotional arousal, and feelings of pleasure.

Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)

The major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, critical for motor control and reducing anxiety.

Agonist

A chemical or drug that enhances the activity of a neurotransmitter, often by mimicking its structure at receptor sites or stimulating its release.

Antagonist

A chemical or drug that inhibits or decreases the action of a neurotransmitter, commonly by blocking receptor sites without activating them.

Medulla

A hindbrain structure extending from the spinal cord that automatically governs vital involuntary bodily functions such as heart rate and respiration.

Pons

A hindbrain bridge lying directly above the medulla that carries nerve impulses between higher and lower brain levels and helps regulate sleep and dreaming.

Cerebellum

A motor-coordination center at the rear of the brain stem responsible for the timing, precision, and coordination of complex, rapid voluntary movements.

Reticular Formation

A finger-shaped core in the brain stem that functions as a gatekeeper, modulating attention, wakefulness, consciousness, and sensory input.

Thalamus

A sensory relay and processing hub situated above the midbrain that routes incoming visual, auditory, and somatosensory signals to appropriate cortical areas.

Basal Ganglia

A group of subcortical structures surrounding the thalamus essential for initiating and regulating voluntary motor actions.

Hypothalamus

A structure located beneath the thalamus regulating essential biological drives including hunger, thirst, temperature, sexual behaviour, and endocrine secretions.

Hippocampus

A key limbic structure required for forming, consolidating, and retrieving declarative memories, as well as transferring data from short-term to long-term storage.

Amygdala

A limbic system component responsible for processing emotions, organizing emotional responses, and coordinating defensive fear and aggression reactions.

Nucleus Accumbens

A limbic reward center linked to midbrain dopamine projections that processes natural rewards, motivation, and the reinforcing properties of drugs of abuse.

Corpus Callosum

A dense band of myelinated nerve fibers connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres, serving as the primary communication bridge between them.

Association Cortex

Cortical regions constituting roughly $75\%$ of the cerebral cortex that integrate sensory and motor inputs to support higher cognitive functions such as thought and planning.

Broca's Area

A region in the left frontal lobe responsible for the motor sequencing and grammatical production required for normal speech articulation.

Wernicke's Area

A cortical area located in the left temporal lobe crucial for speech comprehension and the interpretation of written and spoken language.

Prefrontal Cortex

The anterior portion of the frontal lobe that serves as the seat of executive functions, including goal setting, impulse control, foresight, and strategic judgment.

Lateralization

The phenomenon whereby certain psychological processes and cognitive capabilities are localized more heavily in one cerebral hemisphere than the other.

Aphasia

The partial or total loss of the ability to communicate, produce, or comprehend language resulting from brain injury.

Hemispatial Neglect

A condition usually caused by right-hemisphere damage (such as stroke) where a patient fails to attend to or perceive the contralateral (left) sensory field.

Apraxia

The inability to perform smooth, coordinated motor actions despite intact physical strength, preventing a person from executing complex sequences of movements.

Agnosia

A neurological deficit characterized by the inability to interpret sensory information or recognize familiar objects despite intact basic sensory organs.

Prosopagnosia

A specific form of visual agnosia associated with damage to the fusiform gyrus that impairs the ability to recognize familiar faces.

Neural Plasticity

The capacity of neurons and neural networks to alter their structure, connections, and functional capabilities in response to experience, learning, or injury.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET Scan)

A functional neuroimaging method that measures brain metabolism by tracking the uptake and concentration of injected radioactive glucose in active neurons.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

A brain-imaging technology that detects rapid changes in blood oxygen levels and blood flow to provide real-time images of active brain areas during cognitive tasks.

Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)

An MRI-based neuroimaging technique that tracks the movement and flow of water molecules along axons to map neural pathways and white matter connectivity.

Genotype

The specific genetic makeup and complete set of inherited genes an organism receives from its parents.

Phenotype

The outward, observable physical characteristics and behavioural traits displayed by an organism, produced by the interaction of its genotype with the environment.

Polygenic Transmission

The phenotypic expression of a single trait that is determined by the combined, interacting influences of multiple gene pairs.

Epigenetics

The study of lasting changes in gene expression and function caused by external environmental factors that do not alter the underlying DNA sequence.

Heritability Coefficient ($h^2$)

A statistical estimate ranging from $0.0$ to $1.0$ indicating the proportion of observed phenotypic variance within a group that is attributable to genetic factors.

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

A single-gene recessive metabolic disorder located on autosome $12$ marked by the absence of the enzyme converting phenylalanine to tyrosine, leading to intellectual impairment if untreated.

Tay-Sachs Disease

A recessive genetic disorder located on chromosome pair $15$ caused by an inability to break down fatty acids, leading to severe neurodegeneration, sensory loss, and early childhood mortality.

Huntington's Disease

A rare dominant genetic disorder on autosome pair $4$ causing progressive brain atrophy, loss of motor control (chorea), and intellectual deterioration, typically with onset between ages $35$ and $45$.

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

An X-linked recessive genetic disorder characterized by the absence of dystrophin, resulting in progressive muscle fiber weakness, loss of ambulation, and shortened lifespan.

Down Syndrome

A chromosomal condition caused by an extra copy of chromosome $21$ due to faulty meiotic division, resulting in nervous system abnormalities and characteristic physical traits.