Adult Development and Aging - Exam 2

Information-processing (IP)

study of how people take in stimuli from their environment and transform them into memories; the approach is based on a computer metaphor

Sensory memory

earliest step in information processing where new, incoming information is first registered

Speed of processing

how quickly and efficiently the early steps in information processing are completed

Processing resources

amount of attention one has to apply to a particular situation

two prominent approaches: inhibitory loss, attentional resources

Inhibitory loss

older persons has task-irrelevant thoughts that interfere with processing

conflicting evidence showing differences in stimuli and tasks

strategies to compensate for difficulties

Attentional resources

divided attention

older people find it difficult to multitask

extensive practice helps performance

older adults use strategies to compensate

Automatic processing

processes that are fast, reliable, and insensitive to increased cognitive demands

Effortful processing

requires all of the available attentional capacity when processing information

Working memory

refers to processes and structures involved in holding information in mind and simultaneously using that information, sometimes in conjunction with incoming information, to solve a problem, make a decision or learn new information

- relatively small capacity

Explicit memory

declarative

intentional and conscious

Implicit memory

procedural

retrieval of information without intentional recollection

notably smaller age-related differences

Long-term memory

aspects of memory involved in remembering rather extensive amounts of information over relatively long periods of time

Semantic memory

meaning of words/concepts NOT tied to events in time

relatively spared with normal aging

Episodic memory

conscious recollection of information

involves many daily activities

large age differences

Recall

remembering without hints or clues

Recognition

selecting previously learned information

Autobiographical memory

remembering information and events from our own life

Flashbulb memory

events so vivid it seems we have a photograph in our head

dependent on age when event occurs

dependent on emotions

Encoding

Rehearsal - making connections between incoming information and information already known

Strategies

organize

establish links

younger adults better at using strategies

Retrieval

affects explicit memory tasks in older adults

recognition tests - no differences

Source memory

remembering the source and whether it is real or imagined

False memory

remembering events that did not occur

older adults struggle to link content to its context

older adults with decreased frontal lobe function are susceptible to false memories

Memory loss

medication, alcohol, stress, depression, head injury, infections, thyroid dysfunction, sleep deprivation, nutritional deficiency, normal aging

Cholinesterase inhibitors

slow down memory loss disease that breaks down a key neurotransmitter

Memantine

in memory loss, regulates the activity of glutamate, a chemical messenger involved in learning and memory

protects brain cells against excess glutamate

Intelligence

Three clusters: problem-solving ability, verbal ability, social competence

Theories of intelligence

multidimensional

multidirectionality

plasticity

interindividual variability

Multidimensional

specify many domains of intellectual abilities

Multidirectionality

distinct patterns of change in abilities over the life span, with these patterns differing for different abilities

Plasticity

range of functioning within an individual and the conditions under which a person's abilities can be modified within a specific age range

Interindividual variability

acknowledges that adults differ in the direction of their intellectual development

Dual-component model of intellectual functioning

mechanics of intelligence - neurophysiological architecture of mind

pragmatic intelligence - concerns acquired bodies of knowledge available from and embedded within the culture

Psychometric approach

standardized testing

measure organization of relationships

Cognitive-structure approach

more concerned with how people conceptualize problems and solve problems than with scores on tests

Secondary mental abilities

broad-ranging skills, each composed of several primary abilities

-fluid and crystallized intelligence, visual and auditory organization, short-term acquisition, long-term storage and retrieval

Fluid intelligence

abilities that make you a flexible and adaptive thinker, allow inference drawing, and relationships between concepts independent of acquired knowledge and experience

Crystallized intelligence

knowledge acquired through life experience and education in a particular culture

Visual organization

visualization, spatial orientation, speed of closure, and flexibility of closure

Auditory organization

recognition of relations and speech perception

Short-term acquisition

aware of processes of retaining information long enough to do something with it

Long-term storage and retrieval

processes for forming encoding associations for long-term storage and using associations at time of retrieval

Reasoning and problem solving

younger adults make decisions more quickly

older adults search for and require less information to arrive at decision - rely on easily accessible information

Expertise

Older adults compensate for poorer performance through expertise

encapsulation - connects process of thinking to products of thinking

- complex and resistant to change

Wisdom

involves practical knowledge, given altruistically, involves psychological insights, and is based on life experiences

Social cognition perspective

examining how basic cognitive abilities operate in social situations

Impression formation

way people form and revise first impressions

Negativity bias

older adults pay attention to and seek out emotional information more than do younger people.

this may suggest that decline in cognitive functioning limits the ability of older adults to override the impact of their initial impressions

Social knowledge

based on previous experiences stored in memory

Social belief systems

many types which differ in context across age groups and influence behavior

age differences - content, strength and conditions, situation challenging current beliefs, automatic activation

Causal attributions

social judgments judgments people construct to explain their behavior

Dispositional attribution

behavioral explanations that reside within the person

Situational attributions

behavioral explanations that reside outside the person

Correspondence bias

relying on dispositional information and ignoring situational information

Stereotypes

a special type of social knowledge structure representing socially shared beliefs about characteristics and behaviors of a particular social group

Age-based double standard

operating when an individual attributes an older person's failure in memory as more serious than in a younger adult

- forgetting keys

Implicit stereotype

automatic and unconscious influencing our behavior without awareness

Stereotype threat

evoked fear of being judged in accordance with a negative stereotype about a group to which you belong

Dispositional traits

consist of aspects of personality that are consistent across different contexts and can be compared across a group along a continuum representing high and low degrees of characteristic

Personal concerns

consist of things that are important to people - their goals and their major concerns in life

Life narrative

consists of aspects of personality that pull everything together, those integrative aspects that give a person an identity or sense of self

Five-factor model

consists of five independent dimensions of personality: neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, conscientiousness

Neuroticism

anxiety, hostility, self-consciousness, depression, impulsiveness, vulnerability

Extraversion

interpersonal traits - warmth, gregariousness, assertiveness

temperamental traits - activity, excitement seeking, positive emotions

Openness to Experience

fantasy, aesthetics, action, ideas, values, occupational choice

Agreeableness

opposite of antagonism

-agreeable people are NOT - skeptical, mistrustful, callous, unsympathetic, stubborn, rude, skillful manipulators, aggressive go-getters

Conscientious

hardworking, ambitious, energetic, scrupulous, persevering, desirous to make something of themselves

Epigenetic principle

each psychosocial strength has its own special time of ascendency, or period of particular importance

Sequence of Erikson's stages of psychosocial development

trust vs mistrust

autonomy vs shame and doubt

initiative vs guilt

industry vs inferiority

identity vs identity confusion

intimacy vs isolation

generativity vs stagnation

ego vs despair

Loevinger's theory

ego development results from dynamic interactions between the person and the environment

eight stages, including: character development, interpersonal style, conscious preoccupations, cognitive style

Midlife Crisis

idea that middle age we take a good look at ourselves in hopes of achieving a better understanding of who we are

- or midlife correction - reevaluating one's roles and dreams and making necessary corrections

Psychological forces

normative changes can mimic mental disorders

nature of personal relationships

Sociocultural forces

being paranoid may be adaptive in certain circumstances

cultural differences must be taken into account

Life-cycle factors

older person who wishes to go back to school

resistance to revealing personal info

sleeping patterns

Mental status exams

useful as a quick screening of measures of mental competence

Psychological functioning assessed through

interviews

observation

test or questionnaires

Three dimensions of social functioning

ties with social network

content of interaction with one's social network

number and quality of interactions

Factors influencing assessment

negative bias - racial, ethnic, age stereotypes

positive bias - women do not abuse alcohol

Primary methods

interview, self-report, report by others, psychophysiological, direct observation, performance-based assessment

Depression

rates decline from young adulthood to old age for healthy people

Dysphoria

feeling down or blue

-insomnia, changes in appetite, diffused pain, trouble breathing, headaches, fatigue, sensory loss

Assessment Scales for depression

Beck depression inventory

Geriatric depression scale

Center for epidemiological studies scale

Cause of depression

causes are sudden severe loss and long-term, high-level stress

- neurotransmitter balance

- most common reason is LOSS

Treatment of depression

medication - SSRIs

electroconvulsive therapy

psychotherapy

Delirium

characterized by a disturbance of consciousness and a change in cognition that develop over a short period of time

- caused by medical condition and medication effects - stroke, cardiovascular disease, metabolic side effects, substance intoxication/withdrawal, exposure to toxins

Dementia

family of disorders involving degeneration of mind

affects over 5 million Americans

Alzheimer's disease

most common form of dementia

-neurological changes, symptoms, diagnosis

Sundowning

symptoms of Alzheimer's are worse in the evening

Vascular dementia

numerous small cerebral vascular accidents - cerebral atheriosclerosis and consequent restriction of oxygen to the brain

more rapid than Alzheimer's

Parkinson's disease

slow walking, difficulty getting in and out of chairs, slow hand tremors, treatment involves raising levels of dopamine in the brain

Huntington's disease

involuntary flicking movement of the arms and legs

hallucinations, paranoia, depression, clear personality changes

Alcohol-related dementia

Wernicke-Koraskoff's syndrome

AIDS dementia complex (ADC)

encephalitis, behavioral changes, decline in cognitive function

progressive slowing of motor functions

Anxiety disorders

symptoms on exam, treatment - meds and psychotherapy

Psychotic disorders

Schizophrenia - onset occurs most often between 16-30

Alcoholism

craving, impaired control, physical dependence, tolerance, drops significantly with age