key defs + processes + pros and cons

function of cns

to process information from the body's internal and external environments to activate the appropriate response

brain

network of cells that process information passed through neural pathways from the body, to direct action back out to the body

spinal cord

long thin bundle of nerve fibres that extends from the base of the brain to the lower back

peripheral nervous system

carries information to and from the CNS to the body's muscles, organs, glands, and sensory organs

somatic nervous system

subdivison of PNs comprising of neural networks that carry sensory information to the CNS from sensory receptors and motor information from the CNS to skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system

subdivison of the PNS that connects the CNS to the body's internal visceral organs and glands, providing feedback to the brain about these internal processes

sympathetic nervous system

responsible for increasng the activity of most visceral mucles in times of vigorous activity, stress, or threat

parasympathetic nervous system

responsible for decreasing the activity of most visceral muscles, organs and glands

enteric nervous system

integrated mesh-like sstem made of ganglia embedded into the walls of the gastro-intestinal tract

conscious response

voluntary intentional reaction that is purposeful and involves awareness

process of conscious response

1. sensory stimulus comes into contact with sensory receptors

2. sensory afferent information is transmitted along afferent pathways in the somatic nervous system through the spinal cord to the brain

3. brain processes the sensory information

4. coordinates and initiates a motor response

5. motor neural message is transmitted along motor efferent pathways

6. skeletal muscles carry out the conscious motor response

unconscious response

involuntary, unintentional, and automatic reaction that does not involve awareness

spinal reflex (process)

1. afferent sensory neurons detect stimulus

2. information is transmitted to the spinal cord along sensory afferent pathways

3. interneurons in the spinal cord interpret the information and coordinate a reflex

4. spinal cord transmits motor efferent information to the relevant skeletal muscle while simultaneously sending that afferent information back to the brain for sensory processing

5. the unconscious spinal relflex is conducted by the skeletal muscle at the same time as or before the individual becomes consciously aware of the stimulus

neurotransmitter

a chemical substance produced by a neuron that carries a message to other neurons or cells in muscles, organs, and glands by binding to post-synaptic neurons

neuromodulator

influence the effects of other neurotransmitters (e.g. changing of the reactivity of receptors to another type of neurotransmitter to enhance their excitatory or inhibitory resources)

excitatory effects

stimulates of activates post-synaptic neurons to perform their functions

inhibitory effects

blocks or prevents post-synaptic neurons from firing an action potential

synaptic plasticity

ability of a synapse to change in response to experience, such as changing how effectively communication occurs, and the flexibility and efficiency of nervous system functioning

long-term potentiation

long-lasting increase in the strength and excitability of glutamate synapses after prolonged coactivation of the pre- and post-synaptic neuron, resulting in enhanced synaptic transmission

long-term depression

long-lasting decrease in the strength and excitability of glutamate synapses from prolonged low-lebel stimulation of the post-synaptic neuron

sprouting

creation of new extensions of a neuron such as the nerve endings on axons or dendrites so that new links can be made

rerouting

new connections are made by creating alternate neural pathways which could be entirely new pathway s or connections to existing neural pathways

pruning

elimination of weak, ineffective, or unused synapses

stress

stress is the body's physiological response to both phyical and psychological demands, representing the body's effort to adapt itself to new conditions

internal stressor

originate from within the individual's body, prompting the stress response

external stressor

stimulus from outside the body, from interactions with environmental stimuli

acute stress

intense stress that lasts for a short time

chronic stress

stress that continues for a prolonged peiod of time from ongoing demands, pressures, and worries that are constant and long-lasting

fight-flight-freeze response

a survival mechanism which involves an involuntary acute physical response to a sudden and immediate threat (or stressor) in readiness for fight (confront), flight (escape) or freeze (avoid detection)

cortisol

the primary stress hormone released in times of stress to aid the body in initiating and maintaining heightened arousal

hpa axis

1. threat is experienced and detected by the amygdala

2. amygdala sends a signal to the hypothalamus

3. hypothalamus stimulates the nearby pituitary gland to initiate the secretion of additional stress hormones released from the outer layer (cortex) or the adrenal glands

4. the hormone released is primary cortisol. it acts mire sliwly and is longer lasting than adrenaline and noradrenaline but also helps prepare the body fpr action and keep it on high alert

sam pathway

1. threat is experienced and detected by the amygdala

2. amygdala sends a signal to the hypothalamus

3. hypothalamus activates the sympathetic nervous system in less than 1/20th of a second

4. sympathetic nervous system triggers adrenal medulla to secrete adrenaline (aka epinephrine) and noradrenaline (aka norepinephrine) into the blood stream

5. this circulates in the bblood, activating various organs (e.g. heart) and boosting other physiological processes that prepare the body for action

GAS model

A three-stage physiological response to stress that is non-specific as it will occur regardless of the source of the stressor

alarm reaction stage

The body's initial decline and then rise in arousal to the stressor.

shock (alarm reaction stage)

The body's ability to deal with the stressor drops below normal levels, reacting as if it had been physically hurt. the HPA axis may be initiated so that cortisol can further energize the body.

countershock (alarm reaction stage)

It is when the sympathetic nervous system activates, increasing the body's resistance to the stressor. it is also when FFF initiates, creating high arousal and alertness from the adrenaline being released

resistance stage

second stage of the gas model which involves the body sustaining high levels of arousal to a persistent stressor. This occurs when the stressor has not yet been resolved, so the body continues to use energy to respond to, cope with, and adapt to the ongoing stress.

exhaustion stage

it occurs when the stressor is not dealt with successfully in the resistance stage. The body's defenses and energy levels are depleting, leading to a greatly reduced ability to cope with current and future stressors. The organism's resources have been depleted, leaving it vulnerable to physical and mental illness.

benefits and limitations of the gas model

benefits

• recognises a predictable pattern of physiological responses with distinct stages and sub-sections

• recognises the relationship between crhonic sress and illness

• objective and empirical (observational and/or sensory) evidence

limitations

• based on research conducted on rats, reducing its generalisability to the human population

• focuses only on biological aspects, ignoring the importance of psychological factors (emotion, cognition)

• a uniform model that fails to recognise the subjective nature of stress (different people respond differently)

Lazarus and Folkman Transactional Model of Stress and Coping

• stress involves an encounter (transation) between an individual and their external environment, and that the response depends on the individuals evaluation (appraisal) of the relevance of the stressor to their wellbeing, and their ability to cope with it

• stress is not a result of the individual or the environment alone, rather they influence each other

GBA

a bidirectional (two way) multifaceted communication between the central and enteric nervous system

approach strategies

coping strategies that confront the source of the stressor to reduce te source

avoidance strategies

coping strategies that evade the stressor to indirectly deal with it (in an emotional sense, by channelling thoughts and behaviour away from the stressor)

context-specific effectiveness

when the coping strategy or mechanism used is appropriate for the unique demands of the stressor

coping flexibility

the ability to adjust or change coping strategies depending on the unique and changing demands of a stressor

learning

relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience

behaviourist approach to learning

emphasises obseervable behaviour alone to understand and explain learning, without regarding mental processes

classical conditioning

repeated interacions with stimuli in the environment can result in an involuntary (passive) learnt response

process of classical conditioning

Before conditioning: the NS is tested to ensure it does not produce a response. the UCS is presented and produces the UCR.

During conditioning: Repeated pairing/trials where the NS is immediately followed by the UCS which produces the UCR

After conditioning: the CS alone produces the CR without the presence of the UCS

benefits and limitations of classical conditioning

benefits

• CR can be undone through a process known as extinction which is helpful for people with phobias and PTSD

• based on empirical evidence carried out by controlled experiments

limitations

• the learning is passive. a Cr can be involuntarily (or voluntarily by another party) be created, such as a phobia and other learnt emotional processes

operant conditioning

a type of learning where the consequences of a bejaviour determine the likelihood that it will be performed again in the future

antecedent

stimulus (object or event) that precedes the specific bejaviour

behaviour

the voluntary action that occurs in the presence of the antecedent stimlus

consequence

the environmental event that occurs immediately after the behaviour and influenced the occurence of the behaviour

benefits and limitations of operant conditioning

benefits

• authority figures are often confronted with challenging behaviours, so it can be important to know how to change the behaviour

• emphasises the environmental determinants of behaviour

limitations

• punishment does not indicate to the individual what the correct response is, meaning it does not inform and teach shem "desirable behavours" (can be ineffective in changing behaviour)

• can damage the relationship between the giver and receiver of the punishment, which potentially could perpeutate behavioural issues

observational learning

someone uses observation of a model's actions (and the consequences of those actions) to guide future actions

attention

the learner must be cognitively aware and/or actively focused on distinctive features of the model's behaviour and its ramifications

retention

the learner must be able to encode, store, and later retrieve a mental representation of the informaton in long term memory

reproduction

the ability (physically and cognitively) to imitate the modelled response and complete it

motivation

the learner must desire to reproduce the behaviour for learning to occur (intrinsic and extrinsic motivation)

reinforcement

if the learner receives a desirable consequence for their bejavoir, they are more likelly to reproduce the behaviour again in the future

benefits and limitations of observational learning

benefits

• based on many controlled experiments

• flexible, as it explains differences in children's bejaviour or learning as environmental/societal aspect of observational learning claims that children learn in a social context which is different for each child

limitations

• evidence of learning is not visible, as learners may not physicially reproduce the behaviour for some time

• ignores physical and psychological differences which could affect the ability to retain and repeat certain behaviours

• focuses on how setting influences bejaviour and thus places more weight on the community, neglecting the learner's accountability

aboriginal and torres strait islander peoples' approach to learning

learning takes place within complex systems of knowledge: knowledge and skills are bsaed on internconnected with social, physical, and spiritual understanding. learning is relational and interconnected, rooted within the relationships of community, where fmaily and kin learn from each otehr

eight ways of knowing

story sharing: narrative and story sharing
dreaming stories communicate complex knowledge relating to the natural world and survival

learning maps: planning and visualising processes and knowledge
visual representation or mindmap

non-verbal: dance and observation
traditional dances where the movements reflect the patterns of certain minds. by observing others and participating in dancing rituals, individuals also learn the habits of the animal -> culture if taught and celebrated

symbols and images: images, symbols, metaphors
artwork that uses symbols to represent landmarks, animals, or objects

non-linear: think outside the box, learning from different viewpoints to build new understanding

land links: learning and knowledge are inherently linked to nature, land, Country, and geographical landmarks

deconstruct/reconstruct: breaking down a concept into parts then putting it back together to understand the whole picture

community links: connecting learning to local values, needs, and knowledge by sharing it with others to meet the needs of the community

memory

the processing, storage, and retrieval of information acquired through learning

sensory memory

A type of storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less.

short-term memory

a memory system with limited storage capacity (5-9 items) in which information the person is consciously aware of is stored for a relatively short time (18-30s), unless it is renewed in some way

long-term memory

the relatively permanent storage of information

encoding

conversion of information into a usable form, so that it can be neurologically represented and stored in a memory

storage

retention of the encoded information over time

retrieval

recovery of stored information for when it is needed

explicit memory

information that can be intentionally retrieved and stated from a deliberate and conscious attempt to retrieve it, with the individual's awareness

semantic memory

memory of facts and knowledge aout the world

episodic memory

memory of personally experienced events

implicit memory

information that does not require aware conscious and intentional retrieval

procedural memory

memory of motor skills and actions

classically conditioned memory

conditiponed responess to conditioned stimuli

benefits and limitations of the atkinson shiffrins multi-store model of memory

benefits

• distinguishes between the different memory stores

• outlines that each memory store has a different capacity and duration

• provides a good understanding of the structure and process of memory

• the distinction between STM and LTM is supported by memory studies

• can help explain why amnesia patients have difficulty retrieving memories from LTM or encoding information from STM to LTM

limitations

• could be considered over-simplified

• it has been proposed that STM is more complex than the model suggests, containing different components rather than being a single store

• ignores factors (e.g. motivation or strategy) which can facilitate learning and assist in encoding information

• does not acount for individual differences in memory processes, storage, duration, and capacity

hippocampus

as part of the limbic system, the hippocampus encodes short term memories into long term memories while consolidating new explicit semantic and episodic memories such that they are neurologically stable and long-lasting

amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression, which contributes to the formation and storage of emotionally charged explicit memories

neocortex

after learning and consolidation have occured, long term memories stored in the nrocortex tend to become gradually independent of the hippocampus, amygdala, and other medial temporal lobe structures. Long term explicit semantic and episodic memories are widely distributed throughout the neocortex. their permanent storage tends to be in the areas the memory was first processed. (e.g. frontal lobe for linguistic elements, occipital lobe for visual memories, and temporal lobe for auditory memories). in the process of retrieval, these parts are reconstructed as a single integrated memory for retrieval into conscious awareness. as it is recalled more, the neural network undergoes LTP, strenthening their connection as they become tied together as a single memory

basal ganglia

a set of subcortical structures connected extensively to the neocortex and other brain areas that involves long-term implicit memories of voluntary motor skills

cerebellum

A large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills.

autobiographical events

experiences that have occured at some time in the individual's own life

imagined futures

hypothetical experiences and situations that an individual has the ability to create and conceptualise in their mind

alzheimer's disease

an irreversible neurodegenerative disorder characterised by the gradual widespread degeneration of brain neurons and brain lesions, progeressively causing memory decline, deterioration of cognitive and social skills, and personality changes

aphantasia

a phenomenon in which individuals lack the capacity or power to generate mental imagery

acronyms

pronouncable words formed from the first letters of a group of words

acrostics

involve making verbal associations for items to be remembered by constructing sequences (or phrases) using the first letters of the information to be remembered

method of loci

a mnemonic device for which the items to be remembered are converted into mental images and associated with specific positions or locations

steps to conducting method of loci

1. visualise and imagine a familiar route or place

2. select several memorable places (landmarks)

3. create a visual imagery of th eitems that need to be remembered (bizarre or funny representations are more emmorable)

4. link each of the items to the landmarks

5. imagine walking through the route and retrieve each item by observing the items at each landmark

songlines

navigational route comprising a sequence of locations which often invlude isnigiciant landscape features carrying vital information

consciousness

an individual's awareness of objects and events in the external world, and of their own sensations, mental experiences, and existence at any given moment

normal waking consciousness

states of consciousness associated with being awake and aware of objects and events in the external world, as well as one's sensations, mental experiences, and existence

altered states of consciousness

any state of consciousness that is distinctly different from normal waking consciousness in terms of level of awareness and experience

sleep as a psychological construct

a regularly occuring and reversible ASC that typically occurs naturally and is primarily characterised perceptual disengagement from, and unresponsiveness to the environment

REM

sleep during which there are spontaneous bursts of rapid eye movement where the eyeballs dart back and forth and up and down in jerky but controlled movements

NREM

non rapid eye movement

circadian rhythm

a biological rhythm that involves changes in bodily functions or activities that occur as part of a cycle ith a duration of about 24 hours

ultradian rhythm

a biological rhythm that involves changes in bodily functions or activities that occur as part of a cycle shorter thn 24h