Earth and People exam 2

The Soviet Union

It was Russia + 11 more countries and was the largest country in the world.

Chernobyl

A nuclear power plant in Ukraine where a reactor exploded on April 26, 1986, causing the worst nuclear power accident in history. The explosion released dangerous radioactive material into the atmosphere, exposing people and the environment to radiation.

Kazakhstan

It is a country in Central Asia associated with the environmental disaster of the Aral Sea, which dramatically shrank because rivers that fed it were diverted for irrigation, especially to grow cotton during the Soviet era.

Aral sea

It was once one of the largest lakes in the world, located between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan in Central Asia. During the Soviet era, rivers feeding the sea were diverted to irrigate cotton fields, causing the lake to shrink dramatically.

Norilsk

one of Russia's most polluted cities because of its metal-smelting complex. The nickel smelter releases sulfur dioxide, which contributes to acid rain, and heavy metals have accumulated in the surrounding soil.

Northern European plain

It is the largest and most extensive lowland area in Europe. It stretches from the Atlantic coast of western France across northern Europe.

Volga

It flows into the Caspian Sea and serves as a major transportation route connecting different parts of Russia. its tributaries connect areas around Moscow to St. Petersburg and the Baltic and White seas in the north, as well as the Black and Caspian seas in the south.

Caucasus

It is a region of mountains located between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, between Russia to the north and countries such as Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan to the south. It connects Europe and Asia and separates Russia from parts of Southwest Asia.

Central Asian steppes

They are large, open grassland areas in Central Asia, with few trees and a relatively dry climate. Traditionally used for raising livestock and nomadic herding.

Ural Mountains

They are a mountain range in Russia that traditionally marks the dividing line between European Russia and Siberia (Asia). *THINK BOUNDARY BETWEEN ASIA & EUROPE*

Siberia

It is the large region of Russia located east of the Ural Mountains. It is known for its extremely cold climate, forests, tundra (treeless area), and permanently frozen ground called permafrost (frozen ground).

Nomadic pastoralists on steppes

They are people whose way of life depends on raising grazing animals and moving them from place to place to find the best grass and pasture.

Silk road

It was an ancient network of trade routes that connected Central Asia with places to the east and west, allowing merchants to exchange goods and ideas. Merchants traveled along routes to buy and sell goods. It was a network of different routes. The routes helped connect different peoples and communities.

Mongols

They were a loose confederation of nomadic pastoral people centered in East and Central Asia. Through conquest, they established an enormous empire that stretched from Europe to the Pacific by the 13th century. They were nomadic pastoralists who used military conquest to build an empire stretching from Europe to the Pacific.

emergence of Slavic culture

About 1,500 years ago, a group of farmers—emerged in the area that is now Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus. They gradually moved east and established settlements that helped form the foundations of Russian and other Eastern European societies. They moved east and established settlements. In the mid-800s, Greek missionaries introduced Christianity, specifically what became known as Orthodox Christianity. Greek missionaries also introduced the Cyrillic alphabet, which is still used in much of the region.

first Russian state

it is generally identified as Kievan Rus, an early kingdom that developed around Kiev (modern-day Ukraine) and became an important center of Slavic political and economic life. Slavic towns grew along rivers, especially the Volga River, which connected northern Europe with Central and Southwest Asia. Greek missionaries introduced Orthodox Christianity and the Cyrillic alphabet in the mid-800s.

The Czar's empire

It was the Russian Empire, ruled by a powerful monarch called a czar. It lasted from 1598 to 1917. The czar and a small wealthy aristocracy lived in luxury, while most ordinary people lived in poverty.

Czar: The title given to the ruler of the Russian Empire.

Aristocracy: A small, wealthy upper class that held power and land.

Serfs: Many Russian peasants were legally forced to live and work on land owned by aristocrats.

Serfdom: If the land was sold, the serfs living on it were transferred with it.

Serfdom ended: It was legally abolished in the mid-19th century, but inequality continued.

Opposition: Poverty and inequality helped fuel resistance against the czar.

1917: Czar Nicholas II was overthrown during the Russian Revolution.

St Petersburg

It is a major Russian city located in the northwestern part of Russia, near the Baltic Sea. It is one of the region's largest cities and an important connection point in Russia's transportation network. Used to be the capital before moscow.

Bolshevik revolution

It was the 1917 Russian revolution in which Czar Nicholas II was overthrown, eventually allowing the Bolsheviks—a faction of Communists—to gain control of Russia. The Bolsheviks were a faction of Communists who gained control after a civil war between groups with different ideas about how the revolution should proceed.

perestroika

A series of economic and political reforms introduced by Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in the 1980s to restructure the Soviet Union.

Glasnost

A policy introduced by Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev that allowed more openness, freedom of speech, and public discussion in the Soviet Union. People gained more freedom to criticize the government and discuss problems in Soviet society.

Fall of the USSR

The breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991, which ended its communist political and economic system and created 15 independent countries.

Weak economy: The centrally planned economy struggled to produce enough goods and keep up with other countries.

Political dissatisfaction: People wanted more freedom and less government control.

Gorbachev's reforms: Perestroika and glasnost allowed economic changes and more openness, but also weakened the government's control.

Independence movements: Several Soviet republics wanted to govern themselves instead of being controlled by Moscow.

Shock therapy

A rapid economic change after the fall of the Soviet Union, in which former communist countries quickly shifted from government-controlled economies to market economies.

Oligarchs

Extremely wealthy and powerful people in Russia who gained control of valuable resources and businesses during the privatization of the economy. They also use their wealth to influence politics.

Bankrupt state

country whose government has run out of money or cannot pay its debts and cover its expenses.

HDI drop (and comeback)

After the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, the Human Development Index (HDI) in Russia and other former Soviet countries dropped because of economic decline, job losses, and falling life expectancy. Over time, conditions improved, and Russia's population was growing again by 2013.

growing inequality

When the gap between rich and poor people becomes larger, meaning wealth is increasingly concentrated among a small group of people. After the Soviet Union collapsed, many Communist-era industries were closed or sold to wealthy, well-connected people. This caused wealth disparity to increase, while many workers lost their jobs.

Fossil fuel based economic growth

Economic growth that depends heavily on producing and selling fossil fuels, such as oil, natural gas, and coal. Russia and other post-Soviet countries rely heavily on exporting energy resources, especially oil and natural gas, to support their economies.

Caspian Sea area

A region surrounding the Caspian Sea, located between Europe and Asia. It is important because it contains large reserves of oil and natural gas. Countries in this area compete for control of valuable oil and gas resources and the pipelines used to transport them to other countries.

pipelines

Long systems of pipes used to transport oil and natural gas from where they are produced to places where they are used or sold. Russia and other countries compete to control pipelines because they determine how oil and natural gas reach global markets.

European and Chinese markets

The countries of Russia and Central Asia sell oil and natural gas to European and Chinese markets. These markets are important because Europe and China need energy, and selling it helps these countries earn money.

Europe: A major buyer of Russian oil and natural gas.

China: A growing energy customer, supplied partly through pipelines from Central Asia.

Informal economy

Economic activities that happen outside the official, regulated economy, often without being reported to the government or taxed.

garden food production

Growing food on small household plots, gardens, and family farms, mainly to feed the household. These small plots, gardens, and family farms produce about 59% of the region's agricultural output using only 20% of its arable land.

Post-Soviet Elections, but a Slide Toward Authoritarianism and Corruption

After the Soviet Union collapsed, many former Soviet countries began holding elections. However, many governments remained authoritarian, meaning leaders kept strong control and limited people's political freedoms.

Elections did not always mean true democracy.

Opposition candidates could face intimidation or arrest.

Crime and corruption weakened political systems.

Semi-Autonomous Regions in Russia

Areas within Russia that have some ability to govern themselves but are still part of Russia. Tatarstan and Chechnya are examples of internal republics that sought greater independence or autonomy.

Russification Process

A policy used by Russian czars and Soviet leaders to increase Russian influence in non-Russian areas. Ethnic Russians were encouraged to move into these regions and were often given important jobs and government positions. Ethnic Russian settlers moved into areas of Central Asia and other regions, changing the local population and power structure.

Ukraine Crisis

A political conflict that intensified in 2014 over whether Ukraine should move closer to the European Union or maintain closer ties with Russia.

Western Ukraine generally favored closer ties with Europe.

Eastern Ukraine, which had many Russian-speaking residents, generally favored closer ties with Russia.

Protests led to the removal of Ukraine's president, Viktor Yanukovych.

Crimea Annexation by Russia

Crimea was an autonomous region within Ukraine with a large ethnic Russian population. In 2014, after Ukraine's political crisis, Crimea held a referendum to leave Ukraine. Russia took control of Crimea.

East-West Divide in Ukraine

The difference in political and cultural preferences between western and eastern Ukraine.

West: Generally favored closer relationships with Europe and the EU.

East: Generally favored closer relationships with Russia.

Rebel Control of Eastern Ukraine

During the 2014 crisis, local pro-Russian forces took over government and police buildings in parts of eastern Ukraine. Ukraine's military attempted to regain control.

Chechnya Conflict

Chechnya is a predominantly Muslim region in the Caucasus Mountains that wanted independence from Russia.

- Chechens have a distinct cultural and religious identity.

- Chechnya declared independence in 1991 as the Soviet Union was breaking apart.

- Russia opposed independence, partly because it wanted to maintain control over the region and its resources.

- Two wars were fought, and Chechnya did not achieve independence.

drop in life expectancy, BR, but DR up. Population shrinking. Health problems. But recent comeback.

After the Soviet Union collapsed, many former Soviet countries experienced declining populations because fewer babies were being born and people were dying younger. Life expectancy dropped, especially for men, partly because of alcoholism, health problems, job losses, and reduced access to health care.

Recent comeback: By the mid-2000s, population decline had slowed, and by 2013 Russia's population was growing again. Male life expectancy also began recovering somewhat.

Remember: "Fewer births, more deaths, and shorter lives caused populations to shrink—but things started improving later."

North Africa and Southwest Asia - Difficult Regional Label

Islam: Islam is the major religion in much of the region, but not everyone is Muslim.

Arab: Many people speak Arabic and share Arab cultural traditions, but not everyone is Arab.

Dry: Much of the region has an arid or desert climate, but some areas are wetter.

Middle East: A commonly used name for part of the region, but its boundaries can be unclear.

Physical Geography of North Africa and Southwest Asia (Deserts and nomadic people)

The region contains extensive deserts, especially the Sahara Desert in North Africa and the Rub' al Khali on the Arabian Peninsula.

Nomadic people move from place to place, often raising animals and searching for water and grazing land.

Examples:

Berbers: Indigenous people of North Africa.

Tuareg: A nomadic branch of the Berbers.

Bedouins: Traditionally nomadic people of the Arabian Peninsula and surrounding deserts.

Physical Geography of North Africa and Southwest Asia (Mountains and rainfall)

Atlas Mountains: Located in northwestern Africa. They force moist air upward, causing rain on the windward side. This is called orographic rainfall.

Rainfall in these areas supports agriculture, including citrus fruit production.

Much of the Sahara and Arabian Peninsula is relatively flat and dry.

Turkey and Iran have major mountain ranges formed by tectonic plate movement.

Physical Geography of North Africa and Southwest Asia (Tectonic plates and the Red Sea)

The Arabian Plate and Eurasian Plate are colliding, helping form the mountains of Turkey and Iran.

The African Plate and Arabian Plate are pulling apart.

This pulling apart is called seafloor spreading when new ocean floor forms as the plates separate.

The Red Sea occupies the rift between the African and Arabian plates.

Remember: "Plates colliding create mountains; plates pulling apart help create the Red Sea."

Nile River

Flows north through Sudan and Egypt into the Mediterranean Sea, forming a large delta. The river provides water for farming and settlement.

Euphrates and Tigris Rivers

Begin in the mountains of Turkey and flow southeast toward the Persian Gulf. They have supported settlement and agriculture for thousands of years.

Jordan River and Dead Sea

The Jordan River begins in the uplands of southern Lebanon, flows through the Sea of Galilee, and empties into the Dead Sea.

Wadis

Dry riverbeds that only carry water after rainfall. Most of the year, they are dry.

Quants

Underground channels or tunnels that bring groundwater from higher areas to places where people need it.

Hammam

A traditional public bathhouse, often using heated water and steam.

Aquifers

Underground layers of rock or sediment that hold groundwater.

Oases

Fertile places in deserts where water is available, allowing plants, animals, and people to survive.

fossil water

Ancient groundwater stored underground for thousands of years. It is replaced very slowly, so using too much can permanently reduce the supply.

Water Scarcity

A shortage of available water to meet people's needs.

Unsustainable water use

Using water faster than nature can replace it.

Irrigated Agriculture

Growing crops by bringing water to fields through canals, pipes, or other systems instead of relying only on rainfall.

Salinization of soil

When irrigation water evaporates in hot, dry areas and leaves salt behind in the soil. Too much salt makes it harder to grow crops.

drip irrigation

A watering system that slowly delivers small amounts of water directly to plant roots.

Desalination plants

Facilities that remove salt from seawater so it can be used as freshwater.

Desertification

The process in which dry conditions spread into areas that were previously more fertile or productive.

Great Man-Made River (Libya)

A huge system of underground pipes that transports ancient groundwater from aquifers in the Sahara Desert to Libya's coastal cities and agricultural fields. The problem is that the water is being pumped out much faster than nature can replace it.

Aswan High Dam (Egypt)

A large dam built on the Nile River. Its benefits include helping control the river, providing water for irrigation, and generating hydroelectric electricity. However, it also creates environmental problems:

Less natural flooding means less fertile silt reaches farmland.

More irrigation can cause salt to build up in the soil.

The reservoir flooded villages, farmland, wildlife habitats, and historic sites.

Reduced water and silt contribute to problems in the Nile Delta.

Cradle of civilization

A region where some of the world's earliest civilizations and agricultural communities developed.

Fertile Crescent

An arc-shaped area of fertile land in Southwest Asia, around the Tigris and Euphrates river systems and the Zagros Mountains. It had plentiful water, fertile soil, wild grains, and animals, which helped early people develop agriculture and permanent settlements.

Why is it important? Some of the earliest known agricultural communities developed there around 8,000-10,000 years ago.

Remember: Fertile Crescent = where early farming and civilization began.

Judaism

One of the oldest monotheistic religions, based on belief in one God and teachings including the Ten Commandments. Its sacred text is the Torah. (Jerusalem is important)

Christianity

Based on the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, who taught belief in one God. Its sacred text is the Bible. (jerusalem is important)

Islam

Based on the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad and belief in one God, Allah. Its sacred text is the Qur'an. (Jerusalem is important)

Mohammed

The Prophet Muhammad founded Islam in the 7th century.

Muslims believe he received the Qur'an (Koran) from Allah, meaning God in Arabic.

Remember: Muhammad = the Prophet of Islam.

Mecca

City in Saudi Arabia where Muhammad was born and where Islam began.

Medina

City where Muhammad's mosque and burial place are located.

Quran

The holy book of Islam, containing teachings Muslims believe were revealed to Muhammad by God.

Sunni-Shia Split

After Muhammad died, Muslims disagreed about who should succeed him as leader and interpret the Qur'an.

Five Pillars of Islam

1. Creed (Faith)

Belief that Allah is the only God and Muhammad is his messenger.

2. Prayer

Praying five times every day.

3. Ramadan (Fasting)

Fasting during daylight hours in the holy month of Ramadan.

4. Contributions to the Poor (Zakat)

Giving money to help Muslims in need.

5. Hajj (Pilgrimage)

Traveling to Mecca at least once in a lifetime, if able.

Diffusion

The process where knowledge, ideas, beliefs, and practices spread from one population or place to another.

Spread of Islam

Hearth: Islam began in Mecca on the Arabian Peninsula.

Maghreb: Islam spread across North Africa, including the western region known as the Maghreb.

Spain: Muslim armies carried Islam into the Iberian Peninsula (modern Spain).

Ottoman Empire: The Ottoman Empire helped expand Islam into parts of Europe, North Africa, and Southwest Asia.

Expansion Diffusion

An idea spreads outward from its original location while remaining strong in its starting place.

Relocation Diffusion

People move to a new place and bring their ideas, beliefs, or culture with them.

Contagious Diffusion

An idea spreads quickly from person to person through direct contact.

Hierarchical Diffusion

An idea spreads from important or influential people or places to others.

Gelology of oil

Oil forms from the remains of tiny sea organisms that were buried under layers of sediment. Over millions of years, heat and pressure transformed this organic material into petroleum.

Oil reserves

Oil reserves are the amounts of oil that a country has underground and can potentially extract.

Oil Production and Export Patterns

Production: The amount of oil a country takes out of the ground.

Exports: Oil a country sells to other countries.

Oil-rich countries in North Africa and Southwest Asia produce and export large amounts of petroleum. Some countries depend heavily on oil exports for income.

OPEC - A Cartel

stands for the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries. It is a group of oil-producing countries that coordinate oil policies and production.

A cartel is a group of producers that work together to influence the supply and price of a product.

Oil Crisis of 1973

In 1973, Arab oil-producing countries restricted oil shipments to countries that supported Israel during the Arab-Israeli War. This caused oil shortages and sharp price increases in many countries.

One-Industry Dependency vs. Diversification

One-industry dependency: When a country's economy relies heavily on one industry, such as oil. If oil prices fall or supplies run out, the entire economy can suffer.

Economic diversification: Developing different industries so the country does not depend on just one source of income.

Example: A country that depends almost entirely on oil exports has one-industry dependency. Building up tourism, manufacturing, and technology helps diversify its economy.

Uneven Economic Development

When some countries or groups become much wealthier and more developed than others.

In this region, oil-rich countries have been able to build modern cities and infrastructure, while oil-poor countries often struggle with poverty, unemployment, and overcrowded cities.

Modernization of Oil-Rich Countries

Oil wealth has allowed some countries to build modern cities, roads, airports, new industries, and other large projects.

However, the textbook points out that much of the investment has gone toward physical development, while education, health care, housing, and social services have received less investment.

Dubai

it is an example of a city trying to build an economy beyond oil by investing in tourism, luxury developments, and international business.

One example is Palm Jumeirah, an artificial island built with thousands of workers. The goal is to attract tourists and create income even after fossil fuel resources are exhausted.

Foreign Workers

Oil-rich Gulf countries bring in workers from other countries to build buildings, roads, and other projects. These include low-wage migrant workers and highly skilled workers.

Western Influence on Oil and Politics

European countries and the United States have influenced the region because of its valuable oil and natural gas resources.

Western governments have had economic and strategic interests in the region, and those interests have influenced relationships with local governments.

British Protectorates

A protectorate is a territory that has its own local ruler but is under the protection and strong influence of a more powerful country.

Britain established protectorate relationships with several Gulf territories, giving it influence over their foreign affairs and helping protect its strategic and commercial interests.

Nationalization of Oil

In oil-producing countries, nationalization meant governments took greater control over their oil resources and the money earned from selling oil.

Remember: Nationalization = the government takes control of the country's oil.

Monarchies

It is a government ruled by a king, queen, or other hereditary ruler. In this region, countries such as Saudi Arabia and Jordan have monarchies.

Arab nationalism

The belief that Arab people share a common identity, culture, language, and history and should have unity and political independence.

Military-dominated republics

Countries that officially have presidents and elections, but the military holds much of the actual political power.

Islamic Republic of Iran

country that became an Islamic Republic after the 1979 revolution, when the monarchy was overthrown and religious leaders gained major political authority.

The government combines elected political institutions with religious leadership and Islamic law.

The Arab spring

it was a series of protests and uprisings that began in 2010 and spread across North Africa and Southwest Asia.

People protested against:

Authoritarian governments.

Corruption.

Unemployment and poverty.

Lack of political freedom.

Some governments were overthrown, while others responded with repression or reforms.

Islamism Movement with Roots in Saudi Arabia

Islamism is a political movement that believes Islamic principles should play an important role in government and society.

The textbook connects the region's political and religious movements with different interpretations of Islam. Saudi Arabia has been an important center of conservative Islamic influence.

Remember: Islamism = the belief that Islam should influence how a country is governed.