Psychology Learning

Classical conditioning

• A learning process occurring through associations between 2 stimuli, an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus, so that a response which originally occurred to one stimulus, begins to occur to the other.

• A type of learning through association which can lead to automatic, reflexive responses through the pairing of stimuli

• Key terms:

  • Unconditioned stimulus (US) a stimulus that naturally triggers a response (Food)

  • Unconditioned response (UR) A natural, unlearned reaction to the US (Salivation to food)

  • Conditioned stimulus (CS) A previously neutral stimulus that, after association, triggers a response (Bell)

  • Conditioned response (CR) The learned response to the conditioned stimulus (Salivation to bell)

• Stimulus Generalization: occurs when a response that has been conditioned to a specific stimulus also occurs in response to similar stimuli.

Little Albert: Watson and Rayner

• Aim:

  • To explore whether emotional responses like fear can be learned through classical conditioning.

• Method:

  • A controlled lab experiment with a 9-month-old infant named Albert.

• Procedure:

  • Albert was shown a white rat, a rabbit, a monkey, and burning newspapers.

  • The white rat was the neutral stimulus, which he initially liked. The researchers then struck a metal bar behind him, the unconditioned stimulus, whenever Albert reached for the rat.

  • The sudden noise caused Albert to cry and show distress. This was repeated several times.

• Results:

  • Albert began to show fear (conditioned response) toward the white rat (conditioned stimulus) even without the noise. His fear generalized to similar stimuli, like a white rabbit, fur coat, and even a Santa Claus mask.

Watson connected to Classical Conditioning

• Shows acquisition: the process by which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response.

• Demonstrates stimulus generalization: a response conditioned to one stimulus transfers to others that are similar.

• Highlights the powerful role of environmental factors in shaping emotional behavior, supporting Watson’s belief that emotions could be learned rather than solely biologically determined.

Operant conditioning

• A learning process where voluntary behaviors are modified by associating them with consequences, such as rewards or punishments, that increase or decrease the likelihood of those behaviors occurring again.

• This learning occurs when a volunteer behavior is followed by a reinforcement (increasing the likelihood of the behavior) or a punishment (decreasing the likelihood of the behavior).

• “Positive” means something is added, and “negative” means something is taken away.

  • Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior

  • Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior

  • Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior

  • Negative Punishment: Taking away a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior

• Unlike classical conditioning, which is based on associations between stimuli, operant conditioning involves learning from the outcomes of one’s own actions.

• It has practical applications in areas such as education, parenting, and behavioral therapy, as it explains how behaviors can be strengthened, weakened, or extinguished over time.

  
  

The Good Behavior Game: Barrish, Saunders, & Wolf

• Aim:

  • To investigate whether classroom behavior could be improved using a system of positive reinforcement and punishment, based on operant conditioning.

• Method:

  • A field experiment carried out in real elementary school classrooms, involving young students (first- and second-grade).

• Procedure:

  • The researchers introduced a classroom management strategy called the Good Behavior Game.

  • Students were split into teams during lessons. The whole class was taught as usual, but the game ran quietly in the background.

  • The goal for each team was to avoid breaking classroom rules (e.g., talking out of turn, leaving seats, disrupting others).

  • Teams that kept their behavior under control earned rewards at the end of the session (like extra playtime, stickers, or tokens).

  • If students broke rules, their team received a penalty mark, and repeated misbehavior meant losing the chance at the reward.

• Results

  • There was a significant decrease in disruptive behaviors like shouting out or moving around unnecessarily.

  • Over time, students became more self-regulating and motivated to follow the rules, even when the game was not being played.

  • The game proved especially effective for students who had previously shown high levels of disruptive behavior.

  • The use of both positive reinforcement (rewards) and negative punishment (loss of reward opportunity) clearly influenced voluntary behavior in a structured, consistent way.

How did Barrish, Saunders, & Wolf show operant conditioning

• The Good Behavior Game showed that operant conditioning principles could be successfully applied in a naturalistic, social learning environment.

• It supported the idea that consequences shape behavior, especially when rewards and punishments are clearly linked to specific actions.

• When teams successfully avoided disruptive behavior, they received rewards. This acted as positive reinforcement, increasing the likelihood that students would repeat appropriate behaviors.

• Conversely, teams that broke classroom rules faced consequences (negative punishment) which discouraged disruptive behaviors.

• The study demonstrates operant conditioning because students' classroom behaviors were influenced by the consequences that followed them.

Schema theory

• Schema: A cognitive structure that provides a framework for organizing information about the world, events, people and actions (knowledge, beliefs and expectations).

• They influence our experiences through assimilation and accomodation

  • Assimilation: Adjusting reality to better fit our existing schema

  • Accommodation: Adjusting the existing schemas to better fit the environment

• Schematic processing: using schemas to interpret and organize incoming sensory data. This is advantageous because it saves us time and cognitive energy. It is limited because it is often an approximation and prone to errors.

• Schema activation: when pre-existing schemas are triggered or brought to the forefront of our minds, heavily influencing how we perceive and interpret new information.

Stone

• Aim:

  • To investigate the effect of racial schemas and stereotypes on information comprehension.

• Method

  • The study utilized a laboratory experiment with an independent measures design

  • IV: The perceived race of the basketball player (Black vs. White), manipulated via a photograph.

  • DV: The participants' ratings of the player’s athletic ability, basketball intelligence, and court hustle

• Procedure

  • The participants were told they were in a study about comparing listening to the radio vs watching TV. However, it was really about social schema and schematic processing and schema activation

  • All Ps had to listen to a radio recording of a basketball game and were told they would have to evaluate a particular player’s performance.

  • Half the Ps were told he was white, there other half told he was black.

  • After listening to the recording, they completed a questionnaire about his natural ability, performance and contributions as a player.

• Results

  • The black athlete group rated him as having more athletic ability, strength, and overall better at playing basketball

  • The white athlete group rated him as contributing through smart plays and hustle

  • Researchers concluded that the ratings were, “...remarkably consistent with the stereotypes discussed in sports media”

How does Stone show schema theory

• This study links to schema theory because it shows how schema activation can influence how we process information.

• When participants had their social schema activated, this influenced them to process the audio of the basketball game in a way that led to a distorted assimilation of information rather than accommodation as they ignored information that went against their schema.

• This shows that schemas are quite resistant to change and can lead to errors via schematic processing.

The hippocampus and memory

• There is a hippocampus deep within each medial temporal lobe.

• The hippocampal system is important for forming new declarative long-term memories.

• These include episodic memory for events and semantic memory for facts.

• Memory also involves other brain regions.

• Types of memory

  • Episodic memory: The conscious recollection of specific personal experiences, events, times, and places in your life

  • Procedural memory: The unconscious memory of how to perform physical or cognitive tasks, skills, and motor habits.

HM Case study

• Background:

  • In 1953, HM underwent surgery to treat severe epilepsy. The operation affected both medial temporal lobes, including parts of the hippocampal formation and nearby structures.

• Research aim:

  • Researchers investigated how hippocampal damage impacted memory.

• Case Study Procedures

  • Researchers used a wide range of methods and data collection techniques over an extended period of time, such as IQ test, mirror star tracing, and other memory tests. Later, in 1997, an MRI was used on HM to see the extent of his brain lesions. These 3 studies make up the “HM Case Study”

• Results

  • Severely impaired: forming new episodic long-term memories (anterograde amnesia).

  • Relatively preserved:

    • Working memory (aka short-term memory): Briefly holding information with rehearsal.

    • Procedural memory: Learning mirror tracing without conscious recall of practice.

    • Some older memories remained, though recall was uneven.

Biological factors influence cognition (HM)

• HM’s severe difficulty forming new episodic long-term memories supports the role of the hippocampus in memory.

• However, his preserved mirror-tracing learning shows that memory, such as procedural memory, involves more than one brain system (beyond just the hippocampus).

Localization of Brain Function

• Localization of brain function: the idea that different parts of the brain are responsible for specific behaviors, or that certain functions are localized in certain areas of the brain.

  • Strict Localization:

    • The idea that very particular parts of the brain perform particular functions

  • Relative Localization:

    • Regions have specialized contributions, while complex functions involve interacting systems.

Explain localization of brain function using HM

• HM showed severe difficulty forming new episodic memories after bilateral medial temporal lobe damage. Yet he improved at mirror tracing without conscious recall of earlier practice.

• The contrast illustrates relative localization: the medial temporal lobe system contributes to episodic memory, while procedural memory and learning depends on other brain regions.

• If the hippocampus was responsible for all memory (strictly localized) he would not have been able to improve in mirror tracing task.

Structural MRI

• Structural MRI: Produces detailed images of brain anatomy. It helps identify tissue damage or differences in structure.

• How a structural MRI works:

  • MRI uses a strong magnetic field and radiofrequency pulses.

  • Signals from hydrogen nuclei help a computer construct detailed images of tissue.

  • Researchers can examine internal brain anatomy without surgery or ionizing radiation.

  • Participants must keep still. Movement can blur the image.

• Why use an MRI

  • We use structural MRI to obtain detailed images of the brain without surgery.

  • These scans help researchers locate damage and examine brain structures.

  • Combining scans with cognitive tests helps us understand how biological factors may influence cognition.

MRI connect to HM

• Structural MRI is useful because it produces detailed images of brain structure, helping researchers identify the location and extent of damage.

• In H.M.’s case study, it showed that his lesion affected several medial temporal structures, including parts of the hippocampal formation. Some posterior hippocampal tissue remained and appeared atrophic.

• Combining these anatomical findings with evidence from memory tests is an example of triangulation. This strengthens our understanding of how biological factors may influence cognition by connecting damaged brain structures with observed memory difficulties.

• However, structural MRI shows anatomy rather than how well the remaining tissue functions, and cannot establish causality on its own.

Triangulating evidence HM

• MRI identifies structural damage.

• Memory tasks measure performance, such as delayed recall or mirror-tracing errors.

• Interviews and observation add information about conscious recall and everyday difficulties.

• Combining methods strengthens an interpretation. Each method still has limitations.

Biological reductionism

• Biological reductionism explains cognition or behaviour through biological factors, such as brain structures.

• Biological reductionism is the biological approach to psychology that explains complex human behaviors, mental processes, and social phenomena by breaking them down into their simplest biological parts.

• Instead of looking at the whole picture including cognitive and social factors, it argues that human behavior can be understood by looking at underlying physical components such as brain structures.

  • Strength: Makes specific biological explanations easier to test.

  • Limitation: Can overlook context and interactions between factors.

Biological reductionism using HM

• H.M.’s case illustrates biological reductionism because it explains the complex cognitive process of memory through damage to brain structures.

• His surgery affected both medial temporal lobes, including parts of the hippocampal formation, and he subsequently showed severe difficulty forming new episodic long-term memories.

• This explanation is reductionist because it breaks down a complex cognitive difficulty into its underlying biological components.

• This approach is useful because it makes explanations more specific and easier to investigate.

• Researchers can combine MRI scans identifying structural damage with memory tests measuring performance, helping them understand how particular brain structures contribute to memory.

Holism

• Holism considers the whole person and the interaction of biological, psychological and social influences.

• A holistic account of memory includes the brain alongside attention, prior knowledge and everyday experience.

  • Strength: Recognizes interacting influences on memory.

  • Limitation: Complex explanations can be harder to test.

Bandura

• Aim: To investigate if children learn aggressive behavior through observation in a laboratory setting

• Procedure:

  • Seventy-two children were exposed to either an aggressive adult, a non-aggressive adult, or no model;

  • They were then intentionally frustrated and observed through a one-way mirror for 20 minutes to measure their imitative and non-imitative aggression toward a Bobo doll.

• Results:

  • Aggressive modeling significantly increased aggression, producing both exact imitative and novel behaviors, with children primarily copying same-sex models.

Connect Bandura to Social Learning Theory

• The children in the experimental conditions reproduced specific physical and verbal aggressive behaviors (e.g., hitting the Bobo doll with a mallet, shouting "Pow!") that were identical to those modeled by the adults. This confirms Bandura's assertion that complex behaviors can be acquired simply by observing a model's actions.

• The study found that children were significantly more likely to imitate and pay attention to same-sex models (boys imitating male adults, girls imitating female adults) and models they identify with. This highlights the SLT concept of identification, where learners are more motivated to replicate behavior when they perceive the model as similar to themselves or culturally appropriate.

• This demonstrates that observational learning involves internal cognitive representation (retention and mental processing) before the behavior is physically expressed.

Social learning theory

• The idea that an individual's learning can be related to observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences.

• We learn consequences of behavior from watching what happens to other humans (vicarious reinforcement) & once ‘consequences’ are stored in our memory it serves as a guide for our future actions.

• The steps:

  • INPUT FROM ENVIRONMENT

  • MEDIATIONAL PROCESS

    • Attention

      • The learner must focus on the model to learn.

      • Influenced by: The model's attractiveness, authority, or how desirable the behavior seems

    • Retention:

      • The observer must remember the behavior to repeat it later.

    • Motivation:

      • The drive to imitate the behavior, which increases if the model is consistent, friendly, or shares similar traits (like age and gender) with the observer.

    • Reproduction:

      • The ability to perform the demonstrated behavior.

      • Self-Efficacy: Driven by your belief in your own ability to successfully accomplish the task.

  • BEHAVIOUR

Cognitive models

• Psychologists believe we can scientifically study an unobservable phenomena such as memory.

• Use of cognitive models: A representation of human cognitive processes, such as perception, thinking and decision making, and/or memory used for understanding and predicting human behavior.

• Working Memory Model

  • Visuo-spatial Sketchpad:

    • Your "inner eye" that temporarily stores and manipulates visual details and spatial layouts.

  • Phonological Loop:

    • Your "inner voice" that holds and repeats auditory information and spoken words.

  • Central Executive:

    • The "boss" of the system that controls your attention, makes decisions, and coordinates the other components.

  • Episodic buffer:

    • The "integrator" that combines different types of information with your past memories to create meaningful, conscious experiences.

• One value of cognitive models is that they deepen our understanding and help explain complex cognitive processes.

• In understanding working memory deeper, it is possible this can also facilitate positive change in individuals working memory.

Value of cognitive models

Values

• Structured Explanation

  • They provide a clear framework for how mental processes like memory or decision-making work (e.g., Working Memory Model).

• Testable and Empirical

  • Models can be tested through experiments, making internal mental processes observable and measurable.

• Integrate Theory and Evidence

  • They organize findings from different studies into a coherent understanding of cognition.

• Real-World Application

  • Cognitive models guide practical strategies in learning, memory improvement, health, and technology.

Limitations

• Simplification

  • They are often reductionist, oversimplifying the complexity and dynamic, simultaneous nature of real-world brain function and interaction.

  • They often fail to fully account for the influence of emotion, motivation, or biological factors (neurotransmitters, hormones) on cognitive processing.

• Testability Limits:

  • Some stages or components within complex models remain difficult or impossible to measure directly or isolate experimentally.

Cognitive Load Theory

• Our working memory can only hold a limited amount of information at one time. If that capacity is exceeded, learning becomes less effective.

• Three Types of Cognitive Load:

  • Intrinsic: The inherent level of difficulty from a particular topic (i.e. calculus)

  • Extraneous: Created by the manner in which material is presented (i.e. unnecessary and distracting info)

  • Germane: Cognitive load related to construction of schemas (encouraging students to construct a mental representation of what is being learned through things such as creating diagrams)

Sana

• Aim

  • To investigate whether personal laptop multitasking during a lecture hinders the user's comprehension of the lecture material.

• Method

  • Design: Experiment - Independent Measures Design.

  • Participants: university students who were randomly assigned to one of two conditions.

  • Task: All participants attended a 45-minute lecture on meteorology and were instructed to take notes on their laptops.

• Procedure

  • Participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups:

    • Multitasking Group: Instructed to take notes and complete a series of unrelated online tasks on their laptop during the lecture.

    • No Multitasking Group: Instructed to only take notes on the lecture content.

  • An experimenter monitored screen activity to ensure compliance with the instructions, completing fidelity checks.

  • Immediately after the lecture, all participants took a 40-question multiple-choice comprehension test assessing the material.

• Results

  • Test Scores: Participants who multitasked scored 11% lower on the post-lecture comprehension test compared to the non-multitasking control group.

  • Note Quality: Multitaskers' notes were poorer quality than those taken by the control group, suggesting impaired encoding of information.

Sana for Working Memory Model

• This study demonstrates the value of cognitive models by showing how the Working Memory Model can effectively predict and explain human behavior.

• The WMM provides a structured framework showing that memory involves distinct, limited-capacity components managed by a central executive.

• When students multitasked, processing the auditory lecture while simultaneously navigating unrelated websites overloaded their working memory capacity.

• This empirical evidence supports the model's theoretical prediction that dividing attention across competing visual and verbal tasks disrupts overall cognitive processing.

• Ultimately, Sana’s study highlights how cognitive models offer real-world applications by guiding practical strategies to avoid cognitive overload and optimize learning in technology-driven environments.

Sana for Cognitive Load Theory

• The study demonstrates a failure resulting from high extraneous cognitive load.

• When students are forced to simultaneously process the essential lecture material and the non-academic laptop tasks, the unnecessary mental effort required to manage and switch between these two tasks is diverted away from learning.

• This extraneous load consumes the student's limited working memory capacity, preventing them from allocating sufficient resources to the germane load (deep processing of the lecture content), thereby hindering schema construction and ultimately resulting in lower comprehension test scores.

Dual Processing Theory of Thinking and Decision Making

• System 1

  • System one is fast and intuitive because we use cognitive shortcuts called heuristics.

  • Simplified rules of reasoning, often based on prior experience

  • These shortcuts are undemanding and produce somewhat accurate results

  • Save mental energy

  • Some heuristics may lead to systematically inaccurate or irrational decisions known as cognitive biases

• System 2

  • The systems act sequentially:

  • Our first reaction is to use System 1 in most situations (intuitive, automatic)

  • However, System 2 analysis may override System 1 to logically or rationally make a decision or problem solve

  • System 2 is slower, conscious, and more controlled

• Anchoring bias: the tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information offered (the "anchor") when making decisions.

Anchoring bias

• Anchoring bias is the tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information offered (the "anchor") when making decisions.

• These errors typically happen due to System 1 thinking which is fast, automatic, and intuitive. To save time and cognitive energy, the brain employs a heuristic, or mental shortcut, that disproportionately fixes on an initial value.

• In contrast, System 2 thinking involves slower, rational, and deliberate processing, which evaluates facts objectively but is frequently bypassed once an automatic impression is established.

• The brain uses the initial data point as a starting baseline and then adjusts upward or downward until it reaches a plausible answer, stopping too soon

• Even when that initial information is incorrect, it disproportionately skews all subsequent thinking because people fail to adjust far enough away from it

Englich & Mussweiler

• Aim

  • The researchers wanted investigating whether the sentencing recommendations made by a prosecutor could influence the final decision made by a judge, even when the recommendation was clearly too high or too low.

• Method

  • The study used an independent samples design with young trial judges who had an average of around 9 months of courtroom experience.

• Procedure

  • Participants were all given the same case file involving an alleged rape and had 15 minutes to review it. Judges then received a questionnaire with one of two conditions:

    • Low anchor: The prosecutor recommended a 2-month sentence.

    • High anchor: The prosecutor recommended a 34-month sentence.

  • Judges were asked whether they thought the proposed sentence was too low, appropriate, or too high, and then reported the sentence they would personally recommend.

  • Pilot study with senior law students, who were given the same case materials. These students (who were not exposed to anchor values) gave an average sentence of 17.21 months, using deliberate, reasoned thinking to arrive at their decisions.

• Results

  • Judges in the low-anchor condition gave an average sentence of 18.78 months.

  • Judges in the high-anchor condition gave an average of 28.70 months.

  • This shows a significant difference influenced by the prosecutor’s recommendation.

Englich & Mussweiler and Anchoring Bias + Dual processing theory

• The findings demonstrate the effect of anchoring bias on legal professionals’ decisions.

  • The judges, despite their legal training, were influenced by the arbitrary number provided by the prosecutor.

  • With the time constraint they used the anchor to influence their decision (using System 1 thinking)

  • This supports the idea that even experts may rely on System 1 thinking, which is fast, intuitive, and automatic, especially when under time pressure or cognitive load.

  • In contrast, the participants in the pilot study were not given any anchor and thus relied on System 2 thinking. Their average sentencing was more balanced and reflective of deliberate judgment.

Englich & Mussweiler and Dual Processing theory

• This study supports the Dual Processing Model by showing how System 1 thinking can lead to biases such as anchoring, even among professionals trained to make objective decisions in high stakes enviornments.

• Despite their professional training and the fact that both anchors were completely arbitrary, judges who received the high anchor handed down significantly harsher sentences compared to those who received the low anchor.

• This dramatic difference occurred because the judges' minds unconsciously used the prosecutor's demand as a mental baseline, demonstrating System 1 heuristic processing.

• While determining a prison sentence should ideally require the deliberate, logical evaluation of System 2 thinking, the study constrained the judges to a 15 minute timer; effectively restricting their ability to engage in slow, analytical reflection, forcing them to rely almost entirely on System 1 heuristics.

Confirmation bias and stone

• It shows how confirmation bias heavily distorts human decision-making and filters our interpretation of events to match our expectations, reinforcing social stereotypes and distorting reality in contexts such as sports.

• The Stone study demonstrates confirmation bias by showing how pre-existing stereotypes act as mental filters, causing people to selectively interpret information to confirm their initial beliefs.

• The divergence in the rating of the Black and White players occurred because the participants’ brains actively filtered the identical audio evidence through culturally ingrained racial schemas, selectively focusing on and remembering details that matched their expectations while ignoring contradictory data.

• Ultimately, the study proves that human decision-making is heavily distorted by confirmation bias, as individuals routinely warp objective reality to fit their pre-existing conceptions.

Cognitive dissonance

• The mental stress caused by the inconsistency between one’s behavior and one’s beliefs and/or when when a person holds two or more conflicting beliefs (inconsistency leads to stress and desire to reduce the dissonance)

• Three ways to reduce:

  • 1. Change the behavior: Stop doing the action that causes the conflict

    2. Change the belief: Alter your viewpoint to fit what you are doing

    3. Rationalize or add new beliefs: Justify the mismatch with a new excuse

• The human mind naturally strives for internal consistency, and when your actions clash with your values, or when new facts challenge an old belief, your brain registers the mismatch as a threat and

Festinger

• Aim:

  • to investigate how members of a doomsday cult would react when the world did not end as expected.

• Method:

  • A naturalistic, covert, observational study

• Procedure:

  • Focused on a doomsday cult led by a woman who believed she received messages from aliens predicting the world would end on December 21, 1954.

  • The followers believed they would be rescued by a flying saucer before the apocalypse.

  • Festinger and his team infiltrated the cult, posing as new believers to observe their behavior before and after the predicted apocalypse. The researchers carefully documented how members reacted when the world did not end as expected.

• Results:

  • Rather than abandoning their beliefs, many cult members became even more committed, claiming their faith had “saved the world” and that the aliens had spared Earth because of their loyalty.

  • Some members began actively recruiting new followers, interpreting the failed prophecy as a test of faith.

Festinger and Cognitive Dissonance

• Festinger explained this behavior as a clear example of cognitive dissonance.

• The members faced a clear contradiction: they had given up jobs, relationships, and reputations in anticipation of an event that didn’t happen.

• This created intense psychological discomfort. Since changing their behavior retroactively (e.g., undoing their sacrifices) wasn’t possible, they instead changed their beliefs, reframing the failed prophecy to reduce the dissonance.

• The study demonstrated that the stronger the commitment to a belief, the harder it is to abandon, even in the face of direct disconfirmation.

• Instead, people may rationalize or reinterpret events to align with their actions, protecting their self-image and consistency.

classical conditioning strategies

1. Create positive associations with learning A teacher could consistently play calming music before enjoyable group activities. Eventually, students may associate the music and classroom environment with positive emotions, reducing anxiety around learning.

2. Reduce fear through repeated positive associations A school counsellor could gradually expose students to exam-related situations while pairing them with relaxing activities. Over time,

operant conditioning strategies

1. Introduce a reward system A teacher could give students points or privileges for completing homework and participating in class. Positive reinforcement makes these behaviours more likely to occur again.

2. Introduce consequences for undesirable behaviour A school could temporarily remove certain privileges when students repeatedly disrupt lessons. Negative punishment may decrease disruptive behaviour because something desirable is removed.

schema theory strategies

1. Activate prior knowledge before introducing new material A teacher could begin a lesson by asking students what they already know about a topic before introducing more complex information. This allows students to connect new knowledge to existing schemas, improving understanding and memory.

2. Use concept maps to organise information A teacher could ask students to create diagrams connecting related concepts. This helps students develop organised schemas, making it easier to understand relationships and retrieve information later.

Biological reductionism strategy

1. Introduce biological interventions A healthcare professional could investigate whether biological factors, such as neurotransmitter functioning, contribute to a patient's symptoms before considering appropriate medical treatment. This applies biological reductionism by explaining behaviour through underlying biological processes.

2. Investigate genetic influences Researchers could examine genetic predispositions associated with certain behavioural tendencies to better understand individual differences. This applies biological reductionism by investigating genetic explanations for complex behaviour.

localizaation of brain function strategy

1. Develop targeted rehabilitation programmes A rehabilitation centre could provide specialised language exercises for patients who have experienced damage to Broca's area. This applies localization of function because Broca's area is associated with speech production.

2. Design targeted educational interventions Teachers could use visual memory exercises to support students who struggle with processing visual information, drawing on knowledge about brain regions involved in visual processing.

Braing imaging techniques (MRI) strategies

1. Identify brain abnormalities: Medical professionals could use MRI scans to investigate whether structural brain abnormalities are associated with a patient's cognitive difficulties. This allows them to examine possible neurological explanations for behaviour.

Cognitive models

1. Introduce flashcards and active recall: A teacher could encourage students to create flashcards containing questions on one side and answers on the other. Regularly testing themselves helps students retrieve information from long-term memory, strengthening memory recall.

2. Introduce mind maps and visual organisers: A teacher could encourage students to create mind maps linking related concepts. This helps students organise information into meaningful categories, making it easier to process, store and retrieve information.

Cognitive load theory strategy

1. Break complicated information into smaller sections A teacher could divide a complex lesson into shorter sections, introducing one concept at a time. This reduces cognitive overload and allows students to process information before moving on.

2. Introduce brain breaks: A teacher could introduce short breaks between lessons or after complex topics, allowing students to rest their attention and working memory. This may reduce cognitive overload and help students process and retain information more effectively when they return to learning.

Dual processing theory strategy

1. Require students to show their working and reasoning A teacher could require students to explain each step of their reasoning when answering questions rather than simply providing an answer. This encourages deliberate, analytical System 2 thinking rather than relying on quick, automatic System 1 responses.

2. Introduce structured reflection before decisions A teacher could ask students to consider alternative explanations and evaluate evidence before reaching a conclusion. This encourages slower, more analytical System 2 processing and reduces reliance on intuitive judgements.

confirmation bias strategy

1. Encourage exposure to opposing viewpoints A teacher could organise classroom debates where students must research and argue for a position they initially disagree with. This encourages students to consider contradictory evidence rather than selectively accepting information that confirms their existing beliefs.

2. Introduce evidence-based decision-making A company manager could require employees to evaluate evidence both supporting and contradicting a proposed business decision before approving it. This reduces confirmation bias by encouraging consideration of alternative perspectives.

anchoring bias

1. Provide independent estimates before revealing a reference value A teacher could ask students to independently estimate the answer to a problem before showing them an example answer. This reduces the influence of an initial numerical anchor on their judgement.

2. Encourage independent evaluation before presenting recommendations A company manager could ask employees to independently estimate the value of a product before revealing its advertised price. This reduces the likelihood that the initial price will anchor their subsequent judgement.

Social learning theory strategy

1. Introduce positive role models A teacher could demonstrate effective study techniques in front of students, allowing them to observe and imitate productive learning behaviours. Students may adopt these behaviours through observational learning.

2. Use peer modelling A school could pair younger students with older students who demonstrate positive behaviours, such as effective revision techniques and classroom participation. Observing peers successfully perform these behaviours may encourage imitation.

cognitive dissonance strategies

1. Highlight contradictions between attitudes and behaviour A school could introduce an environmental awareness campaign showing students the impact of plastic pollution. Students who claim to care about the environment but regularly use single-use plastics may recognise the contradiction and feel motivated to change their behaviour to reduce cognitive dissonance.

2. Encourage individuals to make public commitments A health organisation could ask people to publicly commit to exercising regularly. If their behaviour does not match their stated commitment, they may experience cognitive dissonance and become motivated to change their habits to restore consistency between their beliefs and actions.

Culture

• Cultural norms

• Cultural groups

• Surface culture = what we easily see as different when we have contact with another group.

• Deep culture = is the beliefs, attitudes, and values of a group.

Etic

• An etic approach investigates behavior from outside the culture. It seeks to identify universal psychological processes by applying standardized methods across multiple cultures. This approach often involves comparing different cultural groups using the same tools (e.g., surveys or tests).

• An imposed etic occurs when researchers apply theories or methods developed in one culture directly onto another, assuming universal applicability, often without adapting the tool for the new context.

• A derived etic approach seeks to combine emic insights from multiple cultures into a more generalizable framework. Researchers begin with emic studies in various cultures, then compare results to build a theory that respects cultural differences while identifying shared patterns.

Emic

• An emic approach investigates behavior from within a culture.

• It focuses on the unique aspects of that culture, trying to understand behavior in terms of that culture’s norms, values, and context.

• Emic research values cultural depth and authenticity and looking for culturally specific behavior

• Seeks an inside perspective

• Emic research often involves fieldwork, interviews, and observations specific to that group.