Lecture Exam II

Biological Organization from largest to smallest

Biosphere, Biome, Ecosystem, Community, Population, Organism, Organ systems, Organ, Tissue, Cell

All organ systems (no definitions)

Digestive, Circulatory, Respiratory, Immune/Lymphatic, Excretory, Endocrine, Reproductive, Nervous, Integumentary, Skeletal, Muscular

Digestive System

Food Processing

Circulatory System

Internal transportation of materials (gases, nutrients, hormones, etc)

Ex: Blood, heart(s), blood vessels

Respiratory System

Gas exchange w/ external environment (O2 to get CO2)

Ex: trachea, bronchi, lungs, gills(in some species)

Immune/Lymphatic System

Defense against disease infection

Ex: bone marrow, lymph nodes/vessels, thymus, spleen

Excretory system

Get rid of nitrogenous metabollic waste, regulate osmotic balance of body fluids (urine)

Ex: kidneys, utterers, urinary bladder, urethra

Endocrine system

Regulation/coordination of other organs and processes (via hormones)

Ex: pituitary gland, thyroid, adreal, ovaries/testies

Reproductive system

Gamate Reproduction, fertilization, support of embryo

Ex: Ovaries/Testies, uterus, etc

Nervous system

Sensing and responding to external environment, regulating organs and processes, sending and processing information via electrical signals

Ex: brain, nerves, spinal cord, sensory organs

Integumentary system

Protection of outside body from injury, infection, dehydration

Ex: skin, hair, scales. sweat glands

Skeleton System

Body support, movement, protection of organs, storage of minerals

Ex: bones, cartilage, tendons/ligaments

Muscular system

movement

Ex: skeletal muscles

Animal form and function are

determined by laws of physics and environment which they lived

2 major ways to coordinate response to stimuli

Endocrine system - hormones travel in blood, broad area reach

Nervous system - signal travels in neuron, very specific location

Conformer vs Regulator

Conformer: Internal environment changes with external environment

Regulator: constant internal environment despite environment change

Another word for conformer and regulation

Conformer - Poikilotherm

Regulator - Homeotherm

Endotherm vs Ectotherm

Endotherm: get heat from metabolism

Ectotherm: get heat from external environment

Osmoregulation

Balance of concentration of salts vs water in body

Negative vs Positive feedback

Negative feedback: maintains homeostasis, body responses causes stimulus to stop(reversing stimulus)

Positive feedback: driving process to completion, body response causes stimulus to increase (driving process to completion)

Topor definition and characteristics

Temporary state of decreased metabolism

Physiological processes slow, body temp drop, energy consumption dramatically reduced

What do animals get from food?

Energy

8-10 amino acids

Essential fatty acids

Essential vitamins

Essential minerals

2 types of digestive systems

Gastrovascular cavity (incomplete gut) - 1 opening and closing

Alimentary canal (complete gut) - 2 openings

Stages of food processing

1. Ingestion

2. Digestion

3. Absorption

4. Elimination

Bolus

One mouthful of chewed food

Sphincter

Ring of smooth muscle controlling opening between organs

Peristalsis

Contraction of muscle to push bolus down esophagus

What happens in the liver (digestive system)

Liver stores energy containing molecules (glycogen) and regulates transport of nutrients in blood to the rest of the body.

Mesentary

A “new” organ; sheets of connective tissue hold intestines in place overall while allowing small movements; support framework for blood vessels associated with intestines

Where is bacteria stored in the digestive system in herbivores

Cecum

What is an inefficiency of hindgut fermentation

Coprophagy - sending food through digestive system again by consuming waste

Ruminant digestive system

Foregut fermentation

1. Rumen - break down by bacteria

2. Reticulum - further break down by bacteria; food may be repeatedly regurgitated and receded as “cud”

3. Omasum - cud goes here for water to be absorbed

4. Abomasum - digestion by ruminants own enzyme. Food goes from here to intestine

What are the two parts of a bird stomach and how does diet affect these two parts

Proventiculus - digestion of proteins

Ventriculus (gizzard) - grinds up seeds or mechanical digestion orga

Seed eating bird have a bigger ventriculus. Meat eating birds have a bigger proventiculus

Only bird that has foregut fermentation and what they eat

Hoatzin “flying cow”. They eat leaves and uses crop to store bacteria

Besides O2, what does blood also carry?

Ions

Nutrients

Waste products of metabolism

Hormones

Immune defense

Helps regulate body systems

Open vs closed circulatory system

Open: circulatory fluid (hemolyph) not entirely contained within vessels

Closed: circulatory fluid (blood) entirely contained within vessels

Three components of circulatory system

1. Circulatory fluid: blood

2. Set of tubes to transport: vessels

3. A muscular pump to make fluid move: heart

How does hemoglobin transport O2?

Senses pH shift; higher pH binds to more O2. Low pH releases more O2

Blood components

Erythrocytes: carry O2

Leukocytes: immune response

Platelets: clotting

Plasma: water with dissolved ions, hormones, nutrients and waste

Hemoglobin

Transports oxygen, O2. Indy to heme on hemoglobin molecules

Platelets

Small chunks of cytoplasm wrapped in membrane, forms clots made of fibrin

Platelet blockage

Embolism

What is leukemia

Cancer if leukocytes, they grow uncontrollably but don’t work properly, crowd out all cells in blood

Structure of vertebrate circulatory system

Heart: pumps blood throughout body in blood vessels

Arteries: carries blood away from heart

Veins: carries blood toward heart

Capillaries: very small and narrow where gas exchange between blood and surrounding tissues take place

Single vs double circulation

Single: one big loop. Visit heart once

Double: first loop to pick up o2, second loop to drop off o2

How does the heart maintain a coordinated heartbeat?

Auto rhythmic cells of sinoatrial node set timing of contraction of all cardiac muscle cells

Other auto rhythmic cells of atrioventricular node acts as relay point to delay contraction of ventricles until after triage completely empties

Diastole vs systole

Diastole: state of relaxation

Systole: state of contraction

Why does blood flow slower in capillaries than artery/veins

The total diameter of capillaries are larger than artery/veins

Different surfaces for respiration

Gills

If animal is small enough - skin

Insects: Tracheae

Lungs

Countercurrent exchange in gills

no equilibrium, continued transfer of O2 from water to blood at every point

Concurrent flow

Equilibrium would be reached and transfer of O2 would stop, no O2 would be picked up by blood

Emphysema

Heavy smoking over time which leads to wall of alveoli breakdown, less oxygen get into blood

Positive pressure breathing steps

1.) mouthful of air

2.) push air into lungs by closing nostrils, contraction mylohyoid and gulp

3.) to breathe out, opposite steps

Avian respiration

Lungs have one way system with air sacs behind and after lungs

Inhalation: air sacs full

Second inhilation: air sacs empty, lungs fill

Every cycle has air exiting and going

Osmoregualation

Control of solute concentrates in the body; balance of water gain/loss

Excretion

Getting rid of potentially toxic nitrogenous wastes generated by breaking down proteins and nucleic acids

If they The same concentration, they are…

Isotonic or isoosmotic

If two solutions do not have the same concentration, the solution with the lower concentration is the…

Hypotonic or hypoosmotic

How does a solute or water move between 2 solutions ?

If something (solute or water) is free to move between two solutions, it will tend to move in such a way to bring concentration of 2 solution closer to equal

Isoosmotic with environment

Environment changes causes solutes in body to change

Osmoregulators

Maintain fairly constant internal osmolarity independent of environment

Steps to excretory system

1. Filtration: pulling fluid from source to become filtrate

2. Reabsorption: molecules we want to keep

3. Secretion: molecules unwanted go back to in fluid

4. Excretion: getting rid of waste (urine)

Compare how much water is moving through an animal in a given day using a human and a desert animal

Desert animal: most water from metabolism, some from food. Loses mostly from evaporation and less from urine

Human: most water from liquid or food (majority) some from metabolism. Loses mostly from urine and evaporation

Types of excretory system names and definitions

Protonephrida: usually organisms that have no ceolom. Use cilia to draw water and solutes into flare bulbs, filtrate excreted through tubules

Metanephrida: animals that have a ceolom, capillary network reabsorbs molecules the animals need to keep

Malpighian tubules: insects (joined with their digestive system). Outpocketing of alimentary canal, absorbs salt, water, and nitrogenous waste from henolyph, urinary waste is mixed with fecal waste. Molecules transported in rectum

3 types of nitrogenous waste and definitions

Ammonia: low energy, toxic unless dilute, need lots of water to excrete

Urea: higher energy cost, very low toxicity, lower water loss

Uric-Acid: highest energy cost, essentially non toxic, almost no water loss

Nephron

Functional unit of kidney (avg human has ~1 mil nephrons)

If two solutions do not have the same concentration, the solution with the higher concentration is the…

Hypertonic or hyperosmotic

Glomerular filtration

Creates a plasma like filtrate of blood

Structure of kidney

1. Proximal tubule: nutrients reabsorbed, toxins filtered by liver added to filtrate; pH and of body fluids regulated by absorbing/secreting H+ and HCO3-

2. Descending limb of loop of henle : lined with water channels (aquaporinbprotein) where water flows into interstitial fluid (hyperosmotic to filtrate)

3. Ascending loop of henle: ion channels (NO water channels); thin segment has passive diffusion of NaCl and the thick segment has active transport of NaCl

4. Distal tubule: maintaining K/NaCl balance by absorbing/secreting. Regulates pH of body fluids by absorbing/secreting H/HCO3

5. Collecting duct: concentrate urine, last chance to absorb urine, addition of aquaporin regulated by antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Importance of hydration in body (name the two most important ones and an extra one)

*lowers blood volume

*not able to regulate body temp

Lubricators joints

Help prevent constipation

Lessens burden on kidneys and liver by flushing out waste

Helps dissolve minerals and other nutrients

Moistens tissues

What happens when you drink salt water?

Makes you more dehydrated, your brain shrinks

What happens when you drink too much water?

Hyponatremia, brain swells and press against skull

Hormone

Molecule (transported via blood) whose function is to regulate the activity of particular cell or tissue in body

Endocrine vs exocrine

Endocrine: secrete hormones in blood

Exocrine: secrete non-hormone products through ducts onto a surface

Simple endocrine pathway definition and example

Endocrine cells respond directly to stimulus pathways

Ex: Low pH in duodenum> S cells of duodenum secretes secretin>blood vessels>pancreas> bicarbonate release as response

Simple Neuroendocrine Pathway

Neuron responds to stimulus, which in turn causes endocrine cells to secrete hormone

Antagonistic hormone pair

So hormones that have opposite effects and work together to maintain homeostasis

Two parts of pituitary gland

posterior (neurohypophysis)

Anterior (and soon hyphophysis)

Tropic hormones

Regulate activity of other endocrine glands

Name at least one hormone for anterior pituitary and what they do

Growth hormone: too little GH can cause proportional dwarfism and too much can cause gigantism

Melanocyte stimulating hormone: melanin producing cells in stratum basal and is secreted in response to UV radiation, causes tan

Prolactin: stimulates milk production in mammals, regulates metabolism in birds and water/salt balance in fish

Thyroid Gland hormones and what they do

Triiodothyroxine (T3) and Thyroxine (T4) regulate metabolism

Calcitonin stimulates storage of calcium in bone

Parathyroid glands hormone and function

Parathyroid hormone which release calcium from bone into blood

How is calcitonin and parathyroid hormones an antagonistic hormone pair

Calcium homeostasis is monitored by calcitonin (regulates calcium in bone) and parathyroid hormone (releases calcium from bone into blood)

Pineal gland hormone and function

Melatonin: “tells” your body to sleep when it’s dark out. Also causes melanin to aggregate in melanocytes

Adrenal glands function and where are they located in the gland

Stress response

Short term: adrenal medulla

Long term: adrenal cortex

How does short term stress response get to the adrenal gland?

Stress response> hypothalamus> nerve impulses> spinal cord> neuron > adrenal medula > secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine

How does long term stress response get to the adrenal gland?

Stress response in hypothalamus>anterior pituitary releases ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormones)> blood vessel> adrenal corfex> secretion of mineralo and glucocorticoid

Sex hormones: androgens

Brain: sex drive, aggression

Skin: growth of face and body hair, boldness

Bone marrow: erythrocytes production

Male sex organs: sperm production, prostate growth, erectile function

Bone: bone density, maintenance

Muscle: muscle mass and strength

Estrogen vs progestin

Estrogen: function in maintaining reproductive system and developing female secondary sex characteristics

Progestin: functions mostly in prepping uterus for pregnancy and maintaining it during pregnancy

Sex hormones and development in embryo, how does an embryo turn into a male or female fetus

Each embryo has a bipotential gonad male duct (wolfian) and a female duct (mullarian)

To become a male, the hormone AMH (anti mullerian hormone) is released with testosterone to become a male fetus

For female, absence of male hormones turns it into a female fetus.

Sympathetic vs parasympathetic vs enteric nervous system

Enteric: digestive

Sympathetic: fight or flight response > stress > comes from lower spine

Parasympathetic: “rest and digest”> comes from very top of spine, response during peace

Regions of nonhuman vertebrate brain and function

Forebrain: cerebrum (learning, complex, thought), olfractory bulb, scent processing

Midbrain: routing of sensory information

Hindbrain: cerebellum (coordination and involuntary movement)

Major parts of a human brain (no functions)

Diencephalon

Brain stem

Cerebellum

Cerebrum

Brain stem parts and function

Midbrain: receiving sensory input and transfers it elsewhere in brain, controls visual reflexes

Medula oblongata: breathing, swallowing, digestion, blood pressure, regulation

Pons: transfers info between PNS and rest of brain. Large scale body body movement

Cerebellum function

Hand-eye coordination

Learning and remembering motor skills

Handles balance, coordinating movement

Diencephalon parts and function

Thalamus: sorting center for incoming sensory info where it is sent to cerebrum

Hypothalamus: helps regulate body temp, connected to pituitary gland/endocrine system

Epithalamus: connects to pineal gland; regulates body and sleep/wake cycle

Cerebrum function

Controls contraction of skeletal muscles

Part of brain most responsible for memory, learning, and emotion

Opposite sensory and motor information

Right hemisphere: being able to recognize faces

Frontal lobe areas and funcation

Prefrontal cortex: decision making, planning, personality, memory

Motor cortex: control of skeletal muscles

Parietal lobe areas and functions

Somatosensory cortex: sense of touch

Sensory association cortex: integration of sensory info

Occipital lobe and temporal lobe areas and function

(Temporal lobe) auditory cortex: hearing

(Occipital lobe) visual association cortex: combining images and object recognition

Visual cortex: processing visual stimuli and pattern recognition