Research

Haladyna & Downing (2004)

Reading difficulty can hide science knowledge (construct-irrelevant variance)

Johnstone et al. (2012)

Audio was proposed as an access route in science assessment

Treptow et al. (2007) / Welland & Burns (2025)

Frustration-level text weakens comprehension and engagement

Kaldenberg et al. (2015)

Science depends on reading

Caraig & Quimbo (2022)

115 senior high students, with only 7% at mastery in reading comprehension of science texts.

Wood et al. (2018)

Meta-analysis of 22 studies, found that text-to-speech and related read-aloud tools had a positive effect on the reading comprehension of students with reading disabilities

Laitusis et al. (2008)

Read-aloud raised scores at Grades 4 and 8; larger benefit for students with reading-based learning disabilities

Li (2014)

Read-aloud is one of the most common accommodations to students' with reading disabilities

Reading difficulties - Hoover & Gough, 1990

persistent problems that prevent a learner from reading accurately, fluently, and meaningfully at the level expected for the learner's age and educational opportunity.

comprehension = word recognition and language comprehension

DepEd, 2018 (PHIL IRI Manual)

• Frustration-level readers

≤89% word reading, ≤58% comprehension

• Instructional-level readers

=90-96% word reading, =59-97% comprehension

• Independent-level readers

=97-100% word reading, = 80-100% comprehension

Science learning - El Masri et al. 2022

process through which students develop scientific knowledge, skills, attitudes, and practices.

Science learning assessment - Fitria & Ayani, 2024

systematic collection and interpretation of evidence about what students know, understand, and can do in science.

A review of 27 articles identified five major forms of science learning assessment in 21st-century education: authentic, competency-based, digital, formative, and collaborative

Velocity - OpenStax, 2022

vector quantity that describes the rate of change of an object's displacement with respect to time

(w/ direction. speed is scalar quantity)

v/s=d/t

a=v/t

Yıldız, 2019

Learners often find velocity difficult.

A review of studies on teaching velocity and speed reported that high school and university students confuse the two

Alternative Assessment - Janisch et al., 2007

approaches that let learners demonstrate their knowledge and skills through means other than conventional paper-and-pencil tests

Auditory-based assessment - Wood et al., 2007

presenting assessment instructions, questions, and other content through spoken language or audio, so that learners do not have to rely exclusively on independent reading.

ADDIE Model - Branch, 2009

systematic instructional-design framework for developing educational materials, programs, and assessment tools

Analysis - identify learners' needs

Design - specifies the learning outcomes, content, assessment strategies, and format of the product

Development - materials are produced and revised

Implementation - they are used with the intended learners

Evaluation - determines the quality, validity, andeffectiveness of the product through expert review and learner outcomes

ARAL Program - RA No. 12028 // DepEd Order 18 s. 2025 // DepEd Memo 64 s. 2025

ARAL = Academic Recovery and Accessible Learning

is DepEd initiative to provide additional learning support to students experiencing learning gaps

prio: low and high emerging readers & frustration-level readers

For learners in Grades 4 to 10, participation is based on Phil-IRI (English) results.

Reading Intervention - Gorit, 2026

planned and systematic program that gives learners additional, focused instruction beyond regular classroom teaching to address specific reading difficulties

Validity - AERA et. al, 2014

degree to which evidence and theory support the interpretation of test scores for their intended use

Reliability - AERA et. al, 2014

consistency of scores of the assessment

Saltos-Rivas et al. (2022)

Studies show that evidence of validity and reliability is often not reported well

Comprehension - RAND Reading Study Group, 2002

process of constructing meaning from spoken, written, or visual information

Confidence - Bandura, 1997

learners' belief in their ability to perform a task successfully

Engagement - Fredricks et al., 2004

multidimensional construct that includes behavioral involvement, emotional involvement, and cognitive involvement

Difficulty - Guthrie & Klauda, 2014

learner's subjective judgment of how hard a task or text is to understand

*differs from objective difficulty

Dahal et al. (2024)

Purposive sampling is legitimate

Asio & Jimenez (2020) // Chotimah et al. (2023) // Badeo et al. (2025)

Similar studies with ~50 purposively chosen participants

Susantini et al. (2025)

Using 3 science experts for validation

DepEd (2019), QA of Learning Resources Manual v1.0

DepEd Test Question Evaluation Tool, adapted from

Behrmann (2018) "Evaluating the Effects of the Mother Tongue on Math and Science Instruction"

students' perception survey questionnaire adapted from

adopted from Universidad de Zamboanga

Research Instrument Validation Sheet for Content Validity Analysis

Construct-Irrelevant Variance in High-Stakes Testing

systematic measurement error that occurs when a test or assessment measures unwanted external factors instead of the intended trait

there are some factors that may affect or influence the result of an assessment. factors that are not part of the intended construct (CIV)

Samuel Messick

Construct-Irrelevant Variance Proponent

Haladyna and Downing, 2004

CIV is a major threat in validity of score interpretations

Constructivist Learning Theory - Fosnot, 1996

perspective on learning that emphasizes learners' active role in making meaning and developing understanding

Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky (w/ John Dewey, Jerome Bruner, and Ernst von Glasersfeld)

Constructivist Learning Theory Proponent

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Framework - CAST, 2018

research-based educational framework to optimize teaching and eliminate learning barriers for all students

Anne Meyer and David H. Rose (w/ their colleagues)

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Framework Proponent

Audio Representation of Science Assessment Items - Johnstone et al. (2012)

Existing study supports the consideration of audio as an assessment-accessibility feature