Europe and the World: New Encounters, 1500–1800

A comprehensive set of 500 review flashcards covering European voyages of discovery, the creation of Portuguese and Spanish empires, the transatlantic slave trade, colonial rivalry in Asia and the Americas, and the emergence of commercial capitalism and mercantilism.

According to Ptolemy's conception, how many major landmasses existed on the spherical earth?

Three major landmasses: Europe, Asia, and Africa.

How many oceans were depicted in Ptolemy's geography?

Only $2$ oceans.

How did Ptolemy represent the relative size of the oceans compared to the landmasses?

He showed the oceans as considerably smaller than the landmasses.

What major error did Ptolemy make regarding the size of the earth?

He drastically underestimated the circumference of the earth.

What belief did Ptolemy's underestimated circumference instill in Christopher Columbus and other adventurers?

That it would be feasible to sail west from Europe to reach Asia.

Which maritime innovation did European shipbuilders adopt from China?

The axial rudder.

What two types of sails did European shipmakers combine to improve sailing performance?

Lateen sails with a square rig.

What crucial maneuvering capability did combining lateen sails with a square rig give European ships?

The ability to sail against the wind.

What military capability did European seaworthy ships gain from design innovations?

They were large enough to mount heavy cannons and engage in naval warfare.

What commercial advantage did late-fifteenth-century European ships possess for long-distance voyages?

They could carry a substantial amount of goods over long distances.

What navigational instrument did European sailors traditionally use alongside the Pole Star to ascertain latitude?

A quadrant.

Why did using a quadrant and the Pole Star fail European navigators as they sailed south?

Below the equator, the technique was useless.

Which two navigational aids allowed European sailors to explore the high seas with confidence below the equator?

The compass and the astrolabe.

What natural obstacle hindered early European fleets sailing southward along the West African coast on their return trip?

Strong winds that blew steadily from the north along the coast.

What sailing technique did late-fifteenth-century sailors use to overcome coastal West African headwinds?

Tacking out into the Atlantic Ocean to catch returning westerly winds.

Near which Atlantic islands did returning European sailors catch westerly winds to return to western Europe?

The Azores.

Which explorer famously utilized Atlantic wind patterns in his voyages to the Americas?

Christopher Columbus.

What ultimate destination were European sailors seeking when they used their knowledge of winds to round Africa?

The Spice Islands.

Which European nation took the initial lead in the age of overseas expansion?

Portugal.

Under whose sponsorship did Portugal begin exploring the coast of Africa?

Prince Henry the Navigator ($1394$-$1460$).

What were the three blended motives of Prince Henry the Navigator?

Seeking a Christian kingdom as an ally against Muslims, acquiring trade opportunities, and spreading Christianity.

In what year did Prince Henry found his school for navigators?

In $1419$.

Where was Prince Henry's navigation school located?

On the southwestern coast of Portugal.

What precious metal did Portuguese fleets probe southward along the African coast to find?

Gold.

Where had African gold historically been transported from before European sea exploration?

Carried northward from south of the Atlas Mountains in central Morocco.

In what year did Portuguese ships reach the Senegal River just north of Cape Verde?

In $1441$.

What cargo did Portuguese ships bring back to Lisbon from the Senegal River in $1441$?

A cargo of black Africans sold as slaves to wealthy buyers in Europe.

Approximately how many African slaves were shipped annually to Lisbon within a few years after $1441$?

An estimated $1{,}000$ slaves.

What did the Portuguese discover along the southern coast of the hump of West Africa in $1471$?

A new source of gold.

What did Europeans name the southern coast of the hump of West Africa after $1471$?

The Gold Coast.

With which Central African state did the Portuguese establish contact near the Zaire (Congo) River?

The state of Bakongo.

What three main items formed the basis of Portuguese trade in West and Central Africa?

Gold, ivory, and slaves.

How did Portuguese traders use some African captives locally instead of bringing them back to Lisbon?

Bartered them to local merchants for gold.

How did the Portuguese secure their coastal trade along the African coast?

They leased land from local rulers and built stone forts along the coast.

Which Portuguese captain rounded the southern tip of Africa in $1488$?

Bartholomeu Dias (c. $1450$-$1500$).

What winds did Bartholomeu Dias use in the South Atlantic to round southern Africa?

Westerly winds.

What geographical landmark did Bartholomeu Dias round in $1488$?

The Cape of Good Hope.

Why did Bartholomeu Dias return to Portugal after rounding the Cape of Good Hope?

He feared a mutiny from his crew.

Who commanded the Portuguese fleet that successfully reached India ten years after Dias?

Vasco da Gama (c. $1460$-$1524$).

What religious group controlled the East African coastal ports where Vasco da Gama stopped?

Muslim merchants.

Which body of water did Vasco da Gama cross after leaving East Africa?

The Arabian Sea.

On what exact date did Vasco da Gama reach the port of Calicut in India?

May $18$, $1498$.

Where is the port of Calicut located in India?

On the southwestern coast of India.

What did Vasco da Gama tell his Indian hosts he had come in search of?

"Christians and spices."

Did Vasco da Gama locate any Christians in Calicut?

He found no Christians.

How many ships did Vasco da Gama lose on his return journey from India?

$2$ ships.

What specific spices filled the holds of da Gama's surviving ships upon their return to Europe?

Ginger and cinnamon.

What financial return did Vasco da Gama's cargo provide for his investors?

A profit of several thousand percent.

What was the regular annual goal of Portuguese fleets returning to the Indian Ocean?

To destroy Arab shipping and establish a monopoly in the spice trade.

What military victory did a Portuguese armada achieve off the Indian coast in $1509$?

Defeated a combined fleet of Turkish and Indian ships.

Where did the Portuguese impose a naval blockade in $1509$ to choke off Muslim spice revenues?

At the entrance to the Red Sea.

Which two Muslim entities suffered economically from the Portuguese Red Sea blockade?

Muslim rulers in Egypt and the Ottoman Empire.

Who established Portuguese port facilities at Goa in $1510$?

Admiral Afonso de Albuquerque (c. $1462$-$1515$).

Where is Goa located relative to present-day Mumbai?

On the western coast of India, south of present-day Mumbai (Bombay).

What did Goa become for Portuguese operations in the Indian Ocean region?

The headquarters for Portuguese operations throughout the entire region.

Which port on the Malay peninsula did Afonso de Albuquerque seize in $1511$?

Malacca.

Who ruled Malacca prior to the Portuguese takeover in $1511$?

Muslim rulers.

What act of violence did Portuguese forces commit after conquering Malacca in $1511$?

Massacred the local Arab population.

What terror tactics did Afonso de Albuquerque use against captured Arabs according to historical accounts?

He cut off the right hand of men, and the noses and ears of women.

What route advantage did the Portuguese gain by taking Malacca?

A major stopping point and port en route to the Moluccas (Spice Islands).

What was the contemporary European name for the Moluccas?

The Spice Islands.

What specific spice did the Portuguese acquire through a treaty with a Moluccan local ruler?

Cloves.

What was the physical composition of the Portuguese Empire in Asia?

Limited to coastal trading posts in India and China.

Why did Portugal refrain from establishing large inland colonies in Asia?

They lacked the power, the population, and the desire to colonize Asian regions.

What two factors formed the basic foundation of Portuguese overseas success in Asia?

Guns and seamanship.

What was the force size of the first Portuguese fleet that reached Indian waters?

Three ships and $20$ guns.

Where did heavily armed Portuguese ships mount their cannons to maximize stability and firepower?

In the hulls of their sturdy vessels.

Did the Portuguese have an absolute monopoly on gunpowder and firearms in the Indian Ocean?

No, but their naval technology, heavy guns, and tactics gave them military superiority.

Which region of southwestern India was famous for harvesting pepper in the fifteenth century?

Malabar.

What event in $1453$ caused European pepper prices to rise dramatically?

The fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks.

By how much did the price of pepper multiply following the fall of Constantinople in $1453$?

It increased thirtyfold.

Which European maritime city dominated the spice trade via Constantinople prior to Portuguese expansion?

Venice (the Venetians).

How did da Gama's route around the Cape of Good Hope impact Venetian spice dominance?

It shifted much of the control over the spice trade into Portuguese hands.

Where did the Portuguese construct a fort in $1518$ to dominate cinnamon production?

In Ceylon.

What spice did Ceylon primarily produce for the European market?

Cinnamon.

What object is Vasco da Gama shown holding in his c. $1600$ portrait at the Marine Museum in Lisbon?

A large stick of cinnamon in his right hand.

Why did the c. $1600$ portrait depict da Gama holding cinnamon?

To indicate the significance of the spice to his legacy and its role in his expeditions.

In Map 14.1, which geographical regions were primarily explored by Portugal?

The coasts of Africa, the Indian Ocean, India, and Southeast Asia (as well as Brazil).

In Map 14.1, which areas formed the primary focus of Spanish overseas voyages?

The Americas, the Caribbean, and trans-Pacific routes to the Philippines.

How did the Spanish attempt to reach the Asian spice trade in contrast to the Portuguese?

By sailing westward across the Atlantic Ocean.

Why was Spain able to build a grander colonial empire than Portugal?

Spain possessed greater resources.

What was Christopher Columbus's nationality?

Italian (from Genoa).

What were the lifespan dates of Christopher Columbus?

$1451$-$1506$.

What two geographical misconceptions led Columbus to believe Asia could easily be reached by sailing west?

Belief that the earth's circumference was smaller and that Asia was larger than contemporaries thought.

Which monarch rejected Columbus's proposal before he turned to Spain?

The king of Portugal.

Which Spanish monarch agreed to finance Christopher Columbus's voyage?

Queen Isabella of Spain.

What were the names of Columbus's three ships on his first voyage?

The Santa Maria, the Niña, and the Pinta.

How many crewmen sailed with Columbus on his first expedition in $1492$?

$90$ men.

On what date did Columbus set sail on his first transatlantic voyage?

August $3$, $1492$.

On what exact date did Christopher Columbus land in the Bahamas?

October $12$, $1492$.

Which two major Caribbean landmasses did Columbus explore during his first voyage?

The coastline of Cuba and the northern shores of Hispaniola.

Which modern nations are situated on the island of Hispaniola?

Haiti and the Dominican Republic.

Where did Columbus believe he had arrived when exploring Cuba and Hispaniola?

Asia.

What name did Columbus persist in calling the native people he encountered?

"Indians."

What two assurances did Columbus give Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand upon his return to Spain?

That he would eventually find gold and convert the natives to Christianity.

In which years did Columbus make his three subsequent voyages to the New World?

$1493$, $1498$, and $1502$.

What elusive goal did Columbus seek in vain during his subsequent three voyages?

A route to the Asian mainland.

Which geographic regions did Columbus reach across all four of his voyages?

All the major islands of the Caribbean and the mainland of Central America.

Did Columbus ever accept that he had discovered a new continent before his death?

No, he died still convinced that he had reached the Indies in Asia.

Which Italian painter is credited with creating the famous posthumous portrait of Columbus?

Ridolfo Ghirlandaio.