Psychology Research Strategies and Statistical Reasoning Vocabulary

Flashcards covering key vocabulary terms, research strategies, and statistical reasoning from psychology lecture notes.

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Scientific Method

A self-correcting process for evaluating ideas with observation and analysis, ensuring nature hasn't misled you into thinking something you don't actually know.

Formal Thinking

A stage of developmental capacity that begins to show up and be used after adolescence.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (also known as the 'I knew it all along' phenomenon).

Overconfidence

The tendency to believe more than we actually know and overestimate the accuracy of our existing knowledge and intuition.

Curiosity

An eagerness to explore and learn; one of the three main components of the scientific attitude.

Skepticism

Sifting and scrutinizing competing ideas; one of the three main components of the scientific attitude.

Humility

An open-minded awareness of nature and our own vulnerability to error; one of the three main components of the scientific attitude.

Critical Thinking

Smart thinking that examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory, that can be confirmed or refuted.

Operational Definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study.

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study with different participants in different situations to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

Case Study

A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Survey

A descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, typically by questioning a representative random sample.

Population

All the individuals in a group being studied, from which random samples are drawn.

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Naturalistic Observation

A descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two things, ranging from $-1.00$ to $+1.00$.

Positive Correlation

A direct relationship between two variables where both increase or decrease together (ranging from above $0$ to $+1.00$).

Negative Correlation

An inverse relationship between two variables where one increases while the other decreases (ranging from below $0$ to $-1.00$).

Illusory Correlation

A perceived non-existent correlation resulting from random coincidence when people focus only on confirming evidence.

Misinformation

Misleading information that fuels fear of wrong things, rationalizes war, and drives conspiracy theories.

Disinformation

Deliberately planted lies or AI-generated images created to mislead.

Illusory Truth Effect

The cognitive phenomenon where repetition breeds belief because familiar statements feel factual.

Motivated Reasoning

A reasoning process driven by underlying motives that leads people to justify existing beliefs.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek out and expose oneself to resources that support preexisting views while rejecting contradictory evidence.

Echo Chambers

Environments created when individuals seek out like-minded people, reinforcing shared beliefs and polarizing opinions.

Debunking

The process of correcting a myth after it has been believed, best performed with kindness and respect following a four-step model.

Prebunking

The practice of protecting individuals against misinformation before they encounter it.

Poison Parasite Technique

A prebunking strategy that pairs a replica of a deceptive message with an embedded counterargument so future exposure triggers the counterargument in memory.

Preregistration

Publicly communicating a study's planned design, hypothesis, data collection, and analysis prior to conducting research.

Meta-analysis

A statistical procedure for analyzing the combined results of multiple studies to arrive at an overall conclusion.

Peer Reviewers

Scientific experts who evaluate a submitted research article's theory, originality, and accuracy prior to publication.

Descriptive Methodology

Research strategies used to observe and describe behaviors through case studies, naturalistic observations, or surveys.

Correlational Method

A research methodology that measures the association between different variables to see how well one predicts another.

Experimental Method

A research strategy involving the manipulation of variables to discover cause-and-effect relationships.

Wording Effects

The influence that subtle changes in the phrasing or order of survey questions can have on respondents' answers.

Big Data

Massive amounts of anonymous data collected from internet-connected devices, enabling naturalistic observation at a large scale.

Variable

Anything that can vary and is practical and ethical to measure.

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each representing the values of two variables, where the slope indicates direction and scatter indicates correlation strength.

Human Default Setting (Trust)

The natural human cognitive tendency to trust and believe others by default, making it easier to believe than to stop believing.

Step 1 of Debunking (Fact)

Leading the debunking process with a clear assertion of the truth.

Step 2 of Debunking (Myth)

Acknowledging the specific false belief during the debunking process.

Step 3 of Debunking (Fallacy)

Explaining how and why the myth is wrong during the debunking process.

Step 4 of Debunking (Fact Restatement)

Ending the debunking process by restating the truth.

Perceiving Order in Random Events

The human propensity as pattern-seekers to search for connections and structure even within completely random data.

Scientific Rule on Anecdotes

The foundational empirical principle that personal stories do not constitute scientific proof ('The plural of anecdote is NOT evidence').

Scientific Attitude

An approach to inquiry combining curiosity, skepticism, and humility to examine ideas objectively.