Unit 3 Terms - Cambridge International History

Emilio Aguinaldo

• Emilio Aguinaldo emerged as most powerful leader of the Philippine Revolution

• During the peace negotiations between the U.S and Spain, Aguinaldo and the other revolutionary leaders declared independence

• Adopted a constitution and installed Aguinaldo as president

• Filipino troops were outgunned

• Most were untrained and lacked guns

• Aguinaldo switched to a guerilla warfare strategy

• Aguinaldo issued a surrender in 1901, fighting still continued until 1913

Mock Battle of Manila (1898)

• American leaders did not want Aguinaldo to capture Manila

• Negotiated with the Spanish to stage a mock battle where Spain would hand the city over to the U.S

• Aguinaldo ordered not to assist in the “battle”

“Benevolent Assimilation”

• President McKinley declared the Philippines “unfit for self-government”

• Ignored the declaration of independence

• U.S planned to annex the Philippines as a colony

• McKinley declared this “benevolent assimilation”

Guerilla warfare

• Small, frequently hit and run attacks and abushes → Sought to create fear among the American troops

• Guerilla Warfare → U.S soldiers struggled to separate combatants from civilians → This led to a change in tactics and strategy

• U.S anti-guerilla tactics:

• Scorched earth policy

• Destroyed villages, jungle, farms, etc.

• Resetlled villages into concentration camps

• Tortue to gain information from locals

Edo Period

• The Edo Period was an era of peace following the unstable Sengoku Period (15th-16th Centuries)

• Japan was ruled by the Tokugawa Shogunate during the Edo Period (Shogun = Military dictator)

• Policy under the Tokugawa Shogunate:

• Strict social order (feudal system)

• Isolationist foreign policy (Sakoku)

• Restricted foreign trade

• Forbid citizens from leaving Japan

• Banned Christianity

Perry Expedition

• In 1852 U.S. President Millard Fillmore commissioned Admiral Matthew Perry to establish diplomatic relations with nations in the Pacific

• “Perry Expedition” → Most interested in Japan

• In 1853, Perry arrived in Japan → Ordered to leave by the Shogun →Perry threatened to attack →Allowed entry

• Perry returned again in 1854

• Treaty of Kanagawa (1854) → Opened two ports to U.S. trade → Ended Japan’s 220 year isolation

Boshin War (1886-89)

• Angry over the Shogun’s handling of the foreigners, a faction of nobles successfully urged the young Emperor Meiji to rebel in 1868

• In 1869, the Shogun abdicated and Emperor Meiji became the political leader of Japan

Meiji Restoration

• Emperor Meiji set out to modernize and westernize Japan

• Remove unequal treaties and foreign domination of Japan

• Not by resisting Westerners, but by becoming a modern, industrial power like them

• Modernize the Japanese military, economy, education system, and culture

• Destroy the old feudal social structure

Zaibatsu

• Japan underwent rapid industrialization 

• Reached European levels in less than 50 years

• Instituted a capitalist economic system

• Dominated by large business conglomerates controlled by powerful families (zaibatsu)

• Exerted political influence as well

Meiji Constitution of 1889

• In 1889 Emperor Meiji responded to calls for political reform by issuing the Meiji Constitution

• “Granted as a “gift from the emperor” 🤔

• Created a two house legislature

• House of Representatives (elected)

• House of Peers (appointed by the emperor)

• For laws to be passed, it had to make it through all levels of the new Meiji government

• House of Representatives → House of Peers →Prime Minister + Cabinet of Ministers (appointed) → Privy Council (genro advisors) →Emperor

• Gave the military veto over any law

• The Constitution lacked a “Bill of Rights”

• All rights granted to Japanese citizens were qualified or provisional

• The ability to vote limited to men meeting property requirements

REVIEW: First Italo-Ethiopian War (1895-96)

• Tension over a treaty spilled into full-scale war in 1895

• Italian forces from Eritrea invaded Abyssinia

• Initially, the Italians won several battles and annexed part of Abyssinia

• However, the Italian invasion unified the different ethnic groups in Abyssinia and Emperor Menelik II was able to rally an army of over 100,000 men

REVIEW: Fashoda Crisis (1898)

• Italy called on the British for help —> British moved troops up the Nile

• France saw this as a threat to their Central African colonies and sent troops to the Upper Nile

• Goal to dam the swamps of Fashoda to cut off water to Sudan and Egypt

• In response to the French move, British PM ordered the army to reconquer Sudan

• Army sailed further up the Nile River, toward Fashoda

• The French and British forces met, but on friendly terms

• However, the press reported a war was about to break out → public and government panic

• French government ordered a retreat, Britain returned to focus on the Mahdists

• As a result of the Fashoda Crisis, Britain and France agreed on an entente in Africa

• France accepts British control of Egypt

• Britain accepts French control of Morocco

• Technically Egypt and Morocco had native rulers, but they were European puppets

REVIEW: Jameson Raid

• 1895: Cecil Rhodes launched a failed attempt to overthrow the government of the Transvaal

• Kaiser Wilhelm II wanted to send troops and absorb the Transvaal - persuaded not to

• Sent a “congratulations” to Kruger instead

• “Kruger Telegram”

REVIEW: King Leopold II

• King Leopold created the IAA because the Belgian government showed little interest in imperialism

• IAA control of the Congo Free State made it his personal property

• Despite the IAA’s stated mission of ending slavery and spreading Christianity, Leopold wanted natural resources (Rubber, Ivory, Timber)

• Most of what was built was meant to serve rubber companies and Belgian officers

• Leopold created his own private paramilitary to maintain order and ensure resources were collected (Known as the “Force Publique”)

• Composed of Belgian officers and African mercenaries

• The Force Publique was renowned for their violence

• Forced locals to harvest rubber and meet quotas

• Routinely cut off the hands or feet of those who failed to harvest enough