AP Psychology: Biological Bases of Behavior and States of Consciousness

Vocabulary practice flashcards covering historical contributors, perspectives, brain anatomy, the nervous system, neural transmission, neuroimaging techniques, genetics, states of consciousness, sleep, and psychoactive drugs.

Charles Darwin

Scientist who developed the idea of evolution through natural selection, which he used to explain the origin of species.

Paul Broca

Researcher who investigated speech disorders; discovered the region of the cerebrum responsible for speech production (Broca's area) and characterized Broca's aphasia.

Carl Wernicke

Researcher who studied speech disorders; discovered the region of the cerebrum responsible for speech comprehension (Wernicke's area) and characterized Wernicke's aphasia.

Roger Sperry

Researcher who conducted groundbreaking research with Michael Gazzaniga on split-brain patients, helping improve understanding of brain lateralization.

Michael Gazzaniga

Cognitive neuroscientist best known for his research with Roger Sperry on split-brain patients.

William James

Founder of functionalism who maintained that psychology should aim to understand how consciousness helps organisms adapt to their environments.

Sigmund Freud

The founder of psychoanalysis whose approach to therapy included dream interpretation to reveal insights about the unconscious mind.

Biological Perspective

Psychological perspective focusing on the influence of genetics and brain chemistry (physical and biological processes) on behavior.

Evolutionary Perspective

Psychological perspective stating that mental processes exist because they serve an evolutionary purpose by aiding in survival and reproduction.

Frontal Lobe

Lobe of the brain responsible for voluntary movement and higher-order cognitive processes.

Parietal Lobe

Lobe of the brain that integrates perceptions from different senses.

Occipital Lobe

Lobe of the brain primarily responsible for vision.

Temporal Lobe

Lobe of the brain responsible for the sense of hearing and meaningful speech.

Hemispheres

The two symmetrical halves (left and right) of the brain, specialized for particular functions.

Lateralization

The localization of some functions in one of the two hemispheres of the brain.

Corpus Callosum

Brain structure that connects the two cerebral hemispheres.

Medulla

Brain structure that regulates autonomic responses, including breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

Cerebellum

Brain structure that regulates motor coordination.

Hypothalamus

Brain structure that regulates a variety of drives, including hunger, thirst, sexual arousal, and temperature.

Hippocampus

Brain structure involved in the formation of long-term memories.

Amygdala

Known as the "Fear Center" of the brain; involved with fear, aggression, and other emotions.

Pons

Brain structure that transfers information between the cerebellum and other parts of the brain.

Reticular Formation

Brain structure that contributes to attention and conscious state by filtering incoming stimuli and selectively relaying information.

Thalamus

Brain structure that relays signals from other parts of the brain to the cerebral cortex and regulates sleep, consciousness, appetite, and alertness.

Cerebral Cortex

The wrinkled surface of the cerebrum, which is the largest part of the human brain.

Limbic System

System that regulates emotions and drives; consists of the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, and other structures.

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to constantly change both the structure and function of many cells in the brain.

Neurogenesis

The biological process that creates new neurons.

Split Brain

A condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain cannot communicate with each other, researched by Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga.

Broca's Area

Region in the frontal lobe of a person's dominant hemisphere that controls speech production.

Wernicke's Area

Region in the temporal lobe of a person's dominant hemisphere that controls speech comprehension.

Motor Cortex

Area of the cerebral cortex responsible for voluntary movement.

Somatosensory Cortex

Area of the cerebral cortex that receives and processes sensory information.

Central Nervous System

Division of the nervous system consisting of the brain and the spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System

Division of the nervous system consisting of sensory nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.

Somatic Nervous System

Part of the peripheral nervous system that carries voluntary movement signals from the brain to the muscles.

Autonomic Nervous System

Part of the nervous system that controls involuntary and unconscious actions, such as breathing and blood pumping.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Part of the autonomic nervous system activated during the "fight or flight" response to stress.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Part of the autonomic nervous system activated during the "rest and digest" response to non-stressful situations.

Reflex

An automatic, involuntary response to a particular stimulus.

Dendrites

Branch-like extensions of the neuron that receive messages.

Soma

The cell body that keeps the neuron functional.

Myelin Sheath

Fatty coating that protects the nerve and speeds up the transmission of messages.

Axon

Neuron extension that carries messages away from the cell body toward other cells.

Axon Terminals

Ends of axon branches that send signals to adjoining neurons or targets.

Neural Transmission

The process by which information travels through a neuron electrochemically.

Action Potential

The "firing" state in which a neuron sends information down the axon.

Resting Potential

The state in which a neuron is electrically charged and ready to fire.

All-or-None Principle

Principle stating that a neuron fires at full strength or does not fire at all.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals across synaptic gaps between neurons.

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that stimulate neurons to fire, resulting in more action potentials.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that prevent neurons from firing, resulting in fewer action potentials.

Acetylcholine

Neurotransmitter primarily associated with movement and memory.

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter primarily associated with mood regulation.

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter recognized as the pleasure chemical of the brain.

Norepinephrine

Neurotransmitter involved in the response to danger and the "fight or flight" response.

GABA

Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter responsible for calming the central nervous system.

Glutamate

Neurotransmitter involved in thinking, memory, and learning.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that relieve pain and stress while producing feelings of pleasure and euphoria.

Afferent Neuron

Sensory neuron that carries sensory input into the spinal cord and up to the brain.

Efferent Neuron

Motor neuron that carries signals away from the central nervous system to initiate an action.

Interneuron

Neuron that serves as an internal middleman communicating between afferent and efferent neurons.

Endocrine System

System of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream to maintain the body's homeostasis.

Hormones

Chemical messengers produced by glands that travel through the bloodstream.

Glands

Endocrine organs that produce and secrete hormones.

Pituitary Gland

The "Master Gland" and primary organ in the endocrine system; regulated by the hypothalamus.

Thyroid Gland

Endocrine gland found in the neck that produces and secretes hormones regulating metabolism.

Adrenal Glands

Endocrine glands that produce and secrete stress hormones, such as cortisol and epinephrine (adrenaline).

Electroencephalograph (EEG)

Device that uses electrodes placed on the scalp to detect and record brain waves.

MRI

Brain-imaging technique using magnetic fields and radio waves to produce high-resolution images of brain structure.

Functional MRI (fMRI)

Brain-imaging technique that measures blood oxygen levels to determine brain function.

PET Scan

Brain-imaging technique that uses a radioactive dye injected into the bloodstream to detect neurological activity.

CT Scan

Brain-imaging technique that uses X-rays to create 3D images of brain structure.

Nature

Biological and genetic contributions to traits and behavior.

Nurture

Environmental influences and experiences that shape traits and behavior.

Twin Study

A research design that investigates the traits of identical and fraternal twins to determine the extent to which traits are genetically or environmentally controlled.

Heritability

The extent to which differences in the appearance of a trait across several people can be accounted for by differences in their genes.

Natural Selection

The process by which fitter organisms are able to genetically outcompete others of their species by living longer and having more offspring.

Adaptations

Evolved traits that are well-suited to a particular environment.

Consciousness

A state of being aware of your environment and your own mental activity.

Conscious Level

The state comprising all the things within one's awareness at the present moment.

Nonconscious Level

The level of biological processing involving automatic functions (such as breathing and heartbeat) controlled by the brain outside conscious awareness.

Priming

The phenomenon in which exposure to a stimulus beneath conscious awareness influences a response to other stimuli.

NREM Sleep

A period of dreamless sleep.

REM Sleep

The period of sleep that is most associated with dreaming.

Paradoxical Sleep

Another name for REM sleep, named because of the contradictory state in which the brain is active while the body is at rest.

Sleep Spindles

Bursts of neural activity that take place in stage $2$ of NREM sleep and may be important for memory consolidation.

Slow Wave Sleep

Stages $3$ and $4$ of NREM sleep; the deepest stages of sleep, when neural activity and brain waves are slowest.

Sleep Cycle

The recurring progression through sleep stages that repeats every $90\text{--}110\text{ minutes}$.

Manifest Content

The actual events and imagery within a dream, which according to Sigmund Freud serves to mask the unconscious thoughts and desires of the dreamer.

Latent Content

The hidden, unconscious thoughts and desires underlying the manifest content of dreams.

Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis

Theory stating that dreams are the brain's interpretations of random neural activity occurring during REM sleep.

Information-Processing Theory

Theory of dreaming stating that dreams are a way for the brain to deal with stress.

Night Terrors

Sleep disorder that causes the sleeper to wake suddenly from NREM sleep with feelings of extreme fear, agitation, or dread.

Insomnia

Sleep disorder marked by difficulty falling or staying asleep.

Sleep Apnea

Sleep disorder caused by repeated breathing interruptions during sleep.

Narcolepsy

Neurological sleep disorder characterized by irregular sleep patterns and the inability to control and regulate sleep and wakefulness.

Somnambulism

Sleep disorder also known as sleepwalking.

Psychoactive Drugs

Chemical substances that affect the chemical and physical functioning of the brain, altering the user's perception and behavior.

Agonist

A drug or substance that mimics the actions of a neurotransmitter.