Psychology of Personality Exam 1

Definition of personality

characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors over time and across situations.

• Must be repetitive/consistent over time.

• Must occur across multiple situations/environments.

• If a behavior only occurs in one situation, it is more likely a reaction to that situation rather than personality.

Psychological Triad

how people think, feel, and behave

• Conflict between 3 elements → distress.

• Inconsistencies between the 3 are common.

Approaches to personality

Trait approach: focuses on individual differences in personality and behavior and the psychological processes behind them.

• How do people differ?

• What are the fundamental dimensions of personality?

• Where do those differences come from?

• Example: Big Five traits.

• Largest/most dominant personality approach.

Biological approach: examines how personality and behavior are influenced by neuroanatomy, Biochemistry, Physiology, Genetics, and evolution (nature vs nurture)

Example: Phineas Gage suffered frontal-lobe damage and became more impatient, impulsive, and undisciplined, suggesting the frontal lobe is important for self-regulation.

Psychoanalytic approach: based on Freud and emphasizes unconscious mental processes.

• Personality may be driven by unconscious conflicts.

• Explicit attitudes = consciously endorsed and easily reported.

• Implicit attitudes = involuntary, uncontrollable, and sometimes unconscious.

Cognitive approach: Self-concept, goals, emotional experience

• How subjective experiences/cognitive processes shape personality.

Example: positive illusions = overestimating one's true abilities. They may help in the short term but hurt in the long term.

Cultural approach: Examines how social and cultural contexts influence personality.

Examples:

• Culture → individualism vs. collectivism

• Families → birth order

• Peer groups → delinquency

• Dyads → interdependence.

Phenomenological approach: Emphasizes the experience, free will, and the meaning of life. 

• Closely related to humanistic psychology and existentialism.

Construct - check

In personality psychology, a construct is an idea or trait researchers use to describe something about personality that can’t be directly seen or touched.

For example, extraversion, anxiety, self-esteem, or conscientiousness are constructs. You can’t directly “see” extraversion, so researchers measure it using things like questionnaires, behaviors, or ratings.

So basically: construct = abstract psychological trait or concept that researchers define and measure indirectly.

Impulsivity trough different data sources

• I-data: Parent/teacher reports asking whether someone acts on the spur of the moment or would do almost anything for a dare.

• S-data: Asking the person the same kinds of questions directly.

• B-data: Behavioral observations/tasks can measure behavior directly.

Delay of Gratification

The marshmallow task:

• Child can eat 1 marshmallow now or wait about 15 minutes and receive more.

• Most children found waiting difficult.

• Distractors improved waiting:

  • Toys

  • Favorite thoughts/song

  • Putting the marshmallow out of sight

• A favorite thought/song was more effective than toys.

• Six siblings all succeeded without being instructed to distract themselves, suggesting upbringing/environment may help develop delay-of-gratification skills.

Original findings suggested delay of gratification around age 4 predicted:

• Higher SAT scores

• Greater academic/social competence

• Better frustration tolerance

But this was heavily challenged because the original participants were children of Stanford professors.

A later replication with 900+ children found similar but much weaker relationships, especially after accounting for family background, home environment, and early cognitive ability

Funder’s First Law

Great strengths are usually great weaknesses, and surprisingly often the opposite is true as well.

BLIS Framework (sources of data in personality) + Pros and Cons

B — Behavioral Data

Behavior measured through:

• Laboratory experiments

• Daily diary/experience sampling

• Physiological data

• Wearables

• Naturalistic observations

• Social-media/online activity

Advantages

• Wide variety of real and artificial contexts

• Appearance of objectivity

Disadvantages

• Difficult and expensive

• Interpretation may be uncertain.

L — Life Outcome Data

Archival information such as:

• Criminal records

• Marriage/divorce records

• Career outcomes

• Living spaces

Advantages

• Objective/verifiable

• Intrinsically important

• Can have psychological relevance

Disadvantages

• Multi-determination: many things can cause an outcome.

• May lack psychological relevance.

I — Informant-Report Data

Information supplied by other people such as:

• Friends

• Family

• Colleagues

• Parents

• Teachers

Advantages

• Large amount of information

• Real-world basis

• Common sense

• Some I-data are true by definition, such as likability

• Causal force

Disadvantages

• Limited behavioral information

• No access to private experiences

• Error

• Bias.

S — Self-Report Data

Information supplied directly by the person.

Examples:

• Questionnaires

• Interviews

Advantages

• Lots of information

• Access to thoughts, feelings, intentions

• Some are true by definition, such as self-esteem

• Causal force

• Simple/easy

Disadvantages

• Error

• Bias

• Sometimes too simple/easy.

Projective Test - Examples - pros + cons

Projective tests are personality assessments using ambiguous stimuli to reveal how someone thinks or potentially reveal subconscious thoughts/feelings.

Examples:

• Rorschach inkblots

• Thematic Apperception Test

• Ambiguous Situations Task

Major limitations of traditional projective tests:

• Ambiguous

• Generally qualitative

• Subjective for participant and experimenter

• Low reliability

• Different responses may occur at different times.

Projective tests vs. Objective tests

Projective tests: A personality test that asks the client to interpret a meaningless or ambiguous stimulus.

Objective tests: use standardized, structured questions with set answer choices and scoring.
Example: MMPI or a Big Five questionnaire.

Easy way to remember: Projective = open-ended; Objective = structured and scored.

Different methods used in test construction + identify each method

• Rational method — write questions that logically seem related to the trait you want to measure.

  • Example: For extraversion: “I enjoy meeting new people.”

• Empirical method — choose questions because they actually distinguish between groups, even if the questions do not obviously relate to the trait.

  • Example: MMPI-style construction.

• Factor-analytic method — give many questions, then use statistics to find groups of items that correlate together. Those clusters become traits/factors.

  • Example: identifying traits like extraversion or conscientiousness.

Easy memory: Rational = makes sense, Empirical = works in practice, Factor analysis = items cluster statistically.

Funder’s Second Law

There are no perfect indicators of personality; there are only clues, and clues are always ambiguous.

Funder’s Third Law

Data are enhanced by aggregation (something beats nothing 2 times out of 3)

Aggregation means combining/adding more information, which:

• Washes out noise

• Reduces bias.

Projective Hypothesis

The idea that if a person is asked to interpret an ambiguous stimulus, the answer will indicate the person’s needs, feelings, thought processes, or other hidden aspects of the mind.

Rorschach test

Uses inkblots.

Purpose:

• Examine how people are thinking.

• Potentially access subconscious thoughts/feelings.

Problems:

• Ambiguous

• Qualitative (generally)

• Subjective (participant and experimenter)

• Low reliability because someone may perceive something differently each time.

It produces B-data because researchers observe how the person behaves/responds to the stimulus.

Ambiguous situations test

An evolution/newer version of the TAT.

• Can measure implicit racial bias.

• Unlike traditional projective tests, these measures can be reliable and valid.

• Example study: changing skin color in same picture to see how kids may view the image differently (racial bias)

thematic apperception test (TAT)

Typically shows an image involving about two people and asks participants to interpret what is happening.

• Idea: participants project their real feelings into their interpretations.

• Low reliability.

• Different interpretations can occur at different times.

• Mainly used as a conversation starter in therapy.

• Later evolved into the Ambiguous Situations Task.

face validity

More shallow: does it look like it measures it?

• e.g., it seems like, looks like, smells like... it measures generosity

factor analysis

Used in the statistical approach to identify higher-order traits by finding commonalities among many items/traits.

Limitations:

• Results depend on which items are included.

• Removing items can change results.

• The resulting factors still have to be interpreted.

Example:

imaginative + innovative + artistic → creative.

Measurement error + influence on reliability

Measurement error lowers reliability.

Reliable measures should produce consistent measurements, with observed differences reflecting genuine differences in the construct rather than error.

factors that can increase/decrease reliability

Reliability can be evaluated through:

1. Test-retest reliability → same measure repeatedly should give similar results.

2. Internal consistency (alpha) → questions/items should correlate with each other.

3. Inter-rater reliability → different raters should reach similar conclusions.

Measurement error decreases reliability.

Reliability + validity - difference between them

Reliability: consistency

Validity: does the measure actually measure what it claims to measure?

Important relationship:

• An unreliable measure cannot be valid.

• A reliable measure does not necessarily have to be valid.

Example: a broken scale that is consistently 15 pounds too heavy is reliable but not valid.

different kinds of validity + example of each

Internal validity

How much control a study provides for determining what caused an effect.

• Experiments have the most experimental control/internal validity.

External validity

Real-world relevance/generalizability.

• Case studies in the notes are described as having the most real-world relevance

Convergent validity: Multiple sources/measures point toward the same conclusion. (how do we know if we are right)

Predictive validity

Whether judgments/measures predict behavior.

Example: accuracy can be assessed by correlations between judges, close friends, self-reports, and observed behavior.

pros/cons of each type of research design + example research study for each

Case study

In-depth investigation of an individual, event, etc.

Example: Phineas Gage and the PFC/self-regulation.

Pros

• Lots of information

• Can examine unusual people/events

• Useful for hypothesis generation

Cons

• Poor for hypothesis testing

• Findings may not generalize.

Correlational study

Asks whether variables are associated.

Example: comparing people with PFC damage to healthy participants on self-regulation.

Pros

• Studies naturally occurring relationships

• Allows examination of things that cannot ethically/practically be manipulated

Cons

• Third-variable problem

• Direction of causality can be unclear.

Experiment

Manipulates an IV to determine its effect on a DV.

Pros

• Powerful test of causality

Cons

• Manipulation may not represent intended construct.

• Can create unnatural settings.

• Many important variables cannot be manipulated.

correlation coefficient + interpretation (size and direction)

A correlation coefficient measures the strength of the correlation between variables.

• Note that .30-.40 = 70% accuracy

IV + DV

In an experiment:

• IV = Independent Variable (X): manipulated variable.

• DV = Dependent Variable (Y): outcome affected/measured.

X → Y.

WEIRD + problems with it and how can it be addressed

WEIRD = Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic.

WEIRD samples threaten generalizability because results may not apply to other populations.

The notes indicate samples should include diversity such as:

• Race

• Religion

• Gender.

statistically significant effect meaning

A statistically significant effect means that, if the null hypothesis were true, the observed result would be unlikely to occur by chance alone. This provides evidence that there may be a real effect.

examples of “questionable research practices”

• P-hacking

• Fishing for results

• Removing outliers

• Manipulating data

• Publication bias.

reproducibility + replicability - ways to increase them - CHECK

Reproducibility: Getting the same results using the same data and methods.

Replicability: Getting similar results in a new study with new data.

Ways to improve:

• Give more detail about methods, results, and hypotheses.

• Report all measures, conditions, and exclusions.

• Use larger samples, especially for small effects.

• Pre-register hypotheses before collecting data.

• Share data.

• Conduct replication studies.

• Publish nonsignificant/null findings.

major ethical concerns + who determines whether a study is ethical

• deception

• privacy

• safety

IRB determines

Type I + Type II error

Type I error: Say there is an effect when there actually isn't.

Type II error: Say there isn't an effect when there actually is.

p-hacking

• Fishing for results

• Removing outliers

• Manipulating data.

p-level/value

significance level/threshold (that if the null were true, a mean result of higher than the p-level would be unlikely due to just chance/noise alone, meaning there is likely an effect caused by the IV)

effect size

how strong an effect has - rather than solely focusing on significance

publication bias

The tendency of scientific journals preferentially to publish studies with strong results.

generalizability

Valid across contexts, populations, and implementation. (validity + reliability)

aggregation

Aggregation = adding/averaging more data across time, behaviors, or judges.

Benefits:

• Washes out noise.

• Reduces bias.

• Can improve accuracy.

Example: Extraversion predicts the number of parties someone attends across an entire semester better than whether they attend one particular party.

basic issues of person-situation debate

Main question: How much behavior is caused by personality versus the situation?

• People behave somewhat inconsistently across situations.

• Both personality and situations predict behavior.

• Personality has small effects that accumulate over time.

• Personality is better at explaining general behavioral trends than individual behaviors in one specific situation.

situationist perspective - how did field of personality respond to these arguments

Situationist argument

Walter Mischel argued in 1968 that personality does not strongly predict behavior because:

• Personality-behavior correlations were only around r = .30–.40.

• People behave differently across situations.

• Our intuitions about personality may be flawed.

Situationists emphasized:

• Obedience to authority

• Peer pressure

• Social roles

Examples:

• Asch: Conformity study: Bring a participant into a lab, put a series of lines up on the screen, and asks the participants to say which lines are the same length.

  • All other participants are confederates and choose the wrong answer.

  • If there are 3+ confederates, the participant will conform and agree with their wrong answer. 

  • They believe the group is better informed than they are. 

• Milgram: Obedience study: Confederates completed difficult math problems, and participants were told to administer a shock to the confederates whenever they got a problem wrong. 

  • They were told the shocks got worse every time. 

  • They were told the last shock was fatal. 

  • ⅔ of them administered the fatal shock (even though they thought it would kill someone). 

• Zimbardo: Prison study.

  • Stanford students, male participants.

  • Assigned either prisoner or guard.

  • Got out of control quickly and was shut down before finishing.

Personality psychology's response

1. Traits predict behavior over time.

2. Broad traits predict broad behaviors; narrow traits predict narrow behaviors.

3. People maintain relative/rank-order consistency.

4. Personality effects can be as large as situational effects.

5. Personality researchers should study behavioral trends and real-world behavior rather than isolated acts.

strong vs. weak situations (situational constraint)

Weak situation = low situational constraint

• More behavioral variation.

• Personality has more influence.

Examples:

• Party

• Dorm room

• Lounge

• Park

Strong situation = high situational constraint

• Less behavioral variation.

• Situation has more influence.

Examples:

• Church

• Job

• Interview

• Class.

absolute vs. relative consistency

relative consistency (rank-order): people are consistent relative to others

• ex:

  • Extraversion: Michelle has average, and Barack has high.

    • Talkativeness across situations (at church and a game): Barack is higher than Michelle.

absolute consistency: people acting same (at same intensity) at all times

•  ex: this would mean that Barack would be just as loud at a church as at a game (which is false)

fundamental attribution error

The tendency to:

• Overemphasize personality/internal traits

• Underemphasize situational/external factors

***when explaining other people's behavior***

People tend to attribute their own behavior to the situation, whereas they attribute others' behavior to their traits (not the situation)

how do we know if our judgments of someones personality is accurate

Compare personality judgments with other indicators such as:

• Target's own ratings

• Friends' ratings

• Observed behavior

• Real-world outcomes

Accuracy can be measured through correlations among these sources.

consensus + accuracy - how can they be measured

Consensus: Do different judges agree?

Measured through inter-rater agreement/reliability.

Accuracy: Is the judgment correct/predictive (of behavior)?

Measured by correlations among:

• Judges

• Close friends

• Target's self-report

• Observed behavior/outcomes

Important:

• Judges can agree and still be wrong.

• Low consensus/reliability limits accuracy/validity.

moderators of accuracy of personality judgments + how they influence personality judgments

• A moderator is a variable that affects the relationship between two variables

• moderators:

  • judge

    • women better

    • generally more positive people

  • target

    • open book

    • what you see is what you get

    • consistent behavior

  • trait

    • extraversion = easier

    • neuroticism = harder

  • information

    • quality (weak vs. strong situations) + quantity (more = better)

realistic accuracy model (RAM) + how do components of the model influence personality judgments

Target → Relevance → Availability → Detection → Utilization → Judge → Target

1. Relevance: Behavior/information is relevant to the trait being judged.

2. Availability: Relevant information is available for the judge to see.

3. Detection: Judge notices the information.

4. Utilization: Judge interprets the information correctly.

Training research found that utilization training was especially important for improving judgment accuracy. (Detection training not needed, just utilization improves this just as much as both)

what does research say on snap judgments, thin slices of information, first impressions, only ppls faces

General pattern: More information tends to improve accuracy, but very short impressions can still be surprisingly informative.

• Some personality traits can be judged fairly accurately within seconds (extraversion).

Study of strangers who could not speak:

• Extraversion/sociability showed decent consensus and accuracy.

• Conscientiousness/responsibility also showed decent consensus and accuracy.

• Sociability judgments used cues such as eye contact.

• Responsibility judgments used clothing/physical cues such as ironed clothes.

Teacher study:

• Students judged teachers from three 10-second silent clips.

• Optimism, confidence, activity, enthusiasm, and overall impressions showed the strongest consensus/accuracy.

• Six-second clips gave almost the same results as 30-second clips, partly because ratings were aggregated across judges.

Faces study:

• Participants rated personality from real faces 

• Model facial characteristics associated with those ratings

• Researchers created synthesized faces that enhanced/reduced trait-related features 

• New participants rated the synthesized faces 

• Judgments aligned with the manipulated features for most traits, except conscientiousness

self-knowledge + can we improve it

• People know their internal emotional experiences better than others.

• Other people may know our behavior as well as or better than we do.

• Others can predict our behavior equally well or better.

• Accurately judging ourselves can be difficult.

Research:

• Neuroticism: self is most accurate.

• Extraversion: self, close friends, and strangers can all be accurate because it is observable.

• Openness/intellect: close friends were most accurate.

Ways to improve self-knowledge:

• Introspection (looking into own mind and trying to understand who you are) → utilization

• Seek honest feedback → availability/detection

• Observe your own behavior (and draw conclusions) → relevance.

expectancy effects (self-fulfilling prophecy)

expectancy: what you expect of others impacts how you interact with them…

• …which affects how they interact with you

• Self-fulfilling prophecy

moderator variable

• A moderator is a variable that affects the relationship between two variables

convergent validity

process of getting all info that converge on a common conclusion

ex: duck test (if it looks, smells, walks, sounds like a duck, it is, very probably, but still not absolutely postively, a duck)

predictive validity

The degree to which one measure can be used to predict another (ex: judgment predicts behavior)

Accuracy can be tested by correlating judgments with:

• Close-friend reports

• Target self-reports

• Observed behavior.

single-trait approach (unique dynamics and the pros/cons)

Studies one trait → many outcomes (behaviors).

Examples:

• Narcissism

• Self-monitoring.

Pros:

• Simple and focused.

• Gives a detailed understanding of one trait.

• Easy to test relationships with specific behaviors.

Cons:

• Ignores other personality traits that may also matter.

• Can oversimplify personality.

• May miss interactions between traits and situations.

many-trait approach (unique dynamics and the pros/cons)

Traits → outcomes/behavior

Example: California Q-sort.

Pros:

• Gives a more complete picture of personality.

• Can predict behavior better than one trait alone.

• Shows how different traits work together.

Cons:

• More complex to analyze and interpret.

• Harder to tell which trait is most important.

• Can require larger samples and more statistical testing.

essential trait approach (unique dynamics and the pros/cons)

Which traits are the most important?

Goal = identify the smallest number of fundamental traits needed to describe personality.

Example: Five-Factor Model/Big Five

Pros:

• Simplifies personality into a manageable set of major traits.

• Makes it easier to compare people.

• Useful for organizing lots of personality research.

Cons:

• May leave out important smaller or unique traits.

• Can oversimplify personality.

• Different models may disagree on which traits are truly “essential.”

typological approach (unique dynamics and the pros/cons)

Examines whether specific combinations of traits form meaningful personality types.

(groups people into personality types based on patterns of traits.)

Advantage:

• Provides richer whole-person understanding.

• Examines personality structure within one person.

• Useful descriptively.

Problems:

• Personality types do not always replicate.

• Weak evidence they provide more information than studying individual traits.

Three recurring types:

• Well-adjusted: emotionally stable, flexible, confident, and able to handle stress well.

• Overcontrolled: overly cautious, inhibited, anxious, and tends to hold emotions in.

• Undercontrolled: impulsive, less restrained, emotionally reactive, and may have trouble controlling behavior.

lexical, statistical, theoretical approaches to identifying traits + strengths and weaknesses of each - CHECK

Theoretical method

Start from a theory and identify traits predicted by it.

Example: Narcissistic Personality Inventory, whose items came from clinical criteria for narcissistic personality disorder.

Weakness: traits are only as meaningful as the theory they come from.

Statistical method

Search for commonalities among many traits using factor analysis.

Strength:

• Can reduce many traits/items into higher-order dimensions.

Limitations:

• Depends on which items are included.

• Factors must still be interpreted.

Lexical approach

Assumes the most important personality traits will become represented in natural language.

• More important traits → more words/synonyms.

• Can look for traits across different languages/cultures.

• Requires some subjective judgment.

california Q-set + pros/cons - NEED PROS AND CONS

Many-trait/Q-sort method.

• Purpose: To understand particular outcomes/behaviors.

• Starts with about 100 broad descriptive items.

• Can be completed by participants, observers, or parents → S- or I-data.

• Items sorted from most characteristic → least characteristic.

• Uses a forced distribution.

• Maximum of 5 cards at each extreme.

• Most characteristics go in the middle of the distribution.

Pros:

• Gives a detailed, broad picture of personality.

• Can capture patterns across many traits.

• Useful for comparing people or tracking personality over time.

Cons:

• Time-consuming to complete and score.

• Ratings can be subjective and affected by rater bias.

• The forced sorting system may make people choose rankings that don’t perfectly reflect the person.

openness + what it will predict in lives generally - CHECK

Traits in the notes:

• Varied interests

• Open-minded

• Creative

• Original

• Comes up with new ideas.

  • It is the most debated Big Five factor and sometimes fails to replicate cross-culturally.

conscientiousness + what it will predict in lives generally - CHECK

Characteristics:

• Organized

• Reliable

• Punctual

• Makes plans and follows through.

Broad example:

• Conscientiousness → academic performance.

extraversion + what it will predict in lives generally - CHECK

Characteristics:

• Talkative

• Energetic

• Outgoing

• Full of energy.

agreeableness + what it will predict in lives generally - CHECK

Characteristics:

• Warm

• Kind

• Trusting

• Helpful

• Unselfish

neuroticism + what it will predict in lives generally - CHECK

• Worried

• Anxious.

Its opposite, emotional stability, is described as:

• Calm

• Not anxious

• Secure

• Relaxed

• Handles stress well.

critiques of Big 5

Four critiques:

1. Atheoretical

   • Did not originate from a theory.

   • Emerged from lexical hypothesis + factor analysis.

2. Too broad

3. Descriptive, not explanatory

   • Describes what people are like but not why.

4. Not comprehensive

   • Other factors might exist, such as honesty-humility, religiosity, integrity.

3 personality types that replicate best across studies

Well-adjusted, maladjusted overcontrolling, and maladjusted under-controlling

Well-adjusted

• Flexible

• Likeable

Overcontrolled

• Inhibited

• Fearful

• Self-critical

Undercontrolled

• Impulsive

• Restless

• Risky.

Myers-Briggs type indicator (MBTI) + major critiques

• Produces 16 personality types.

• Based on Carl Jung.

• Forces people to one end or the other rather than allowing a middle ground.

• Results can change within hours based on mood.

• Jung's ideas underlying it were not scientifically validated according to the notes.

• Strong marketing contributed to popularity.

Strengths

• Easy to understand

• Positive

• Accessible

Weaknesses

• Forced either/or categories

• POOR reliability.

self-monitoring

high self-monitors: difference between their inner and outer selves and in how they perform in different settings

low self-monitors: largely the same on the inside and out and don’t vary much from one setting to another

narcissism

• excessive self love

• good first impression, but then ppl like you less and less over time

• typically the most anxious on the inside as they seek external validation

• need to feel a sense of superiority

• mean-level decreases over lifespan (cross-sectional study that may have cohort effect)

• younger generations have greater levels (low effect size - cross-temporal meta-analysis looking at cohort effect)

  • small changes overall

  • changes in meaning of narcissism

• biggest study across generations

  • entitlement highest

  • narcissism small but significantly declines

  • 
    

lexical hypothesis

The most important personality traits will become represented in natural language.

• More important traits → more words/synonyms describing them (and a lot of synonyms).

• Researchers can search different languages/cultures for universal traits.

• Some subjective judgment is involved.

The Big Five used this approach by hand-searching the English dictionary and identifying 4,500+ terms considered stable traits, then using factor analysis to reduce them to major factors.

mean-level + rank-order stability in terms of personality development

Mean-level change

Change in the average level of a trait across a population over time.

Example: Does average neuroticism decrease with age?

Rank-order consistency

Whether people maintain their relative position compared with others.

• Requires longitudinal research.

• Does not tell you about mean-level change.

• A person may change while still keeping the same rank relative to others.

Example: the most extraverted child in kindergarten may still be the most extraverted in third grade even if everyone's extraversion changes.

when in lifespan is personality most (or least) likely to change + which traits are most likely to change with age

The notes challenge the idea that personality is completely fixed after 30.

General cross-sectional findings:

• Extraversion: relatively stable across lifespan.

• Openness: relatively stable in the study presented.

• Conscientiousness: largest increase across lifespan.

• Agreeableness: rapid increase after about age 30 and plateaus around age 55.

• Neuroticism: important age-related change was found particularly among women.

Personality also becomes increasingly stable with age (cumulative continuity).

general patterns of personality change over the lifespan

From the studies in the notes:

• Conscientiousness generally increases.

• Agreeableness generally increases, especially after ~30.

• Emotional stability generally increases / neuroticism decreases.

  • neuroticism higher in women then as life goes on, starts to average out with men but still lower

• Some dimensions of extraversion change differently:

  • Social dominance showed increases in the longitudinal graphs.

  • Social vitality showed a different/flatter pattern.

• Openness showed a different developmental pattern when younger ages were included.

  • generally improves slightly

is personality “set like plaster” at age 30 - on which traits do women show more change than men (or vice versa)

No, according to the studies presented in the notes.

Biological perspectives had argued that there should be little personality change after 30 because biological development plateaus, but data showed continued mean-level personality change after 30.

For example:

• Conscientiousness continued increasing.

• Agreeableness rapidly increased after age 30.

The notes specifically identify neuroticism as showing substantial change only among women in the cross-sectional findings.

end of history illusion

People:

• Correctly perceive that they changed considerably in the past.

• Incorrectly predict that they will change very little in the future.

Study:

• 7,519 adults took a Big Five measure.

• One group recalled themselves 10 years earlier.

• Another predicted themselves 10 years in the future.

• People underestimate how much their personality will continue changing.

• Effect continues across the lifespan, although the gap becomes smaller as people age.

Jean Twenge argument in “generation me” about changes in narcissism

• parents trying to instill too much self-esteem in children (too much for their own good)

• (most) children don’t need this instilled in them

• ex: participation trophies and telling kids how special they are

factors that contribute to change versus stability in personality

personality stability:

• biological (hormones) changes with age (temperament - DNA)

• changes in social roles (marriage) impact responsibilities

• psychotherapy and psychiatric medications

personality change:

• physical development

  • strength etc

• hormone changes (puberty)

• intelligence & linguistic increase

• Major life events

• Society - New social roles, like college, work, marriage, or parenthood

  • social norms

• Changes in relationships or environment

• Maturation with age

Intentional effort, therapy, or new habits (big meta-analysis)

• Psychotherapeutic (cognitive behavioral therapy, psychoanalytic).

• Pharmacological (medication and psychosocial treatment). 

• Largest change in emotional stability.

• Most effective for people with anxiety or personality disorders. 

• Most change occurs ~4-5 weeks.

fake it til you make it

• small steps to act like the person you want to be and slowly but surely will change (very slightly)

• RAP technique: realistic, actionable, persistent

types of person-environment transactions + examples

Three forms are listed:

1. People react differently to the same situation (REactive)

2. Personalities are drawn to certain situations (active)

   • People select environments that fit their traits.

   • avoid incompatible contexts

3. traits and behaviors can change situations (evocative)

   • The way a person acts can alter the environment around them.

cohort effects

A cohort effect = change attributed to a historical period rather than necessarily to aging itself. (generational effect)

This is a major limitation of cross-sectional studies because different age groups grew up in different historical conditions.

• recent ex: covid

meta-analysis

The notes describe meta-analysis as a large aggregation of studies.

Example:

• Meta-analysis of longitudinal personality-change studies.

• 92 samples.

• N = 50,120.

• Compared mean-level personality changes from ages 10 through 70+.

cross-sectional

Compares different people at different ages.

Advantage:

• Can compare age groups without following participants for decades.

Main limitation in the notes:

• Cohort effects.

longitudinal

Studies the same participants over time.

• Best measure of mean-level change according to the notes.

• Can examine rank-order consistency.

• Expensive.

• Time-consuming.

cumulative continuity

Personality becomes more stable as people get older (over time).

A longitudinal meta-analysis also showed increasing rank-order consistency with age.

heterotypic continuity

consist tendencies still prevalent, just reflected differently w/ age

ex: aggressive child may fight, aggressive adult may verbally fight

temperament

The term often used for the “personality” of very young, pre-verbal children. Aspects of temperament include basic attributes such as activity level, emotional reactivity, and cheerfulness.

3 types:

1) positive emotionality: extraversion + agreeableness

2) negative emotionality: neuroticism

3) effortful control: conscientiousness (ability to delay gratification)

person-environment transaction

Personality and environment influence one another (and are both important predictors of behavior)

maturity principle

Changes in personality traits that are useful for adult roles.

This fits changes such as increases in conscientiousness and agreeableness as adults take on responsibilities such as work and family roles. The notes specifically connect increased agreeableness with roles such as worker, parent, and grandparent.

social clock

The traditional expectations of society for when a person is expected to have achieved certain goals such as starting a family or getting settled into a career.

narrative identity

who you are (as a human) - a persons story

3 steps:

1) learn to see oneself as an actor

• develop social skills, traits, roles in society

2) become an agent

• guided by goals + values

• plan for future

• choose career, life partner, values

3) become the author of your story

functions of brain regions in relation to personality: amygdala, prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate, hippocampus

Amygdala: Detection/perception of emotion (especially negative emotions).

• Well connected to other brain regions (memory).

• Links emotions with other bodily responses (hormones).

• Involved in emotional learning.

• Damage can result in flat affect, fearlessness. 

• Works with the hippocampus to form emotional memories.

  • Aware of something happening emotionally for others but won’t have the emotion themself. 

• Physically small. 

• Main role is receiving, detecting, and relaying.

Hippocampus: Vital for memory consolidation (new memories).

• But, memories are not necessarily stored here.

• Hippocampus and amygdala work together to form emotional memories. 

Anterior cingulate (AC): Involved in inhibiting emotional responses, negative emotions, and physical pain.

• Can modulate amygdala activity.

  • Once it detects a signal (danger), the amygdala may continue sending a signal, AC can mute this signal (as it knows it is actually safe). 

• Plays a role in autonomic functions (blood pressure, heart rate).

• Plays a role in higher-level functions (detecting errors, impulse control).

• Ex: Social rejection → do brains process social pain similar to physical pain?

  • Physical pain increases AC activity.

  • Measured brain activity (fMRI) during cyberball (inflicts social rejection).

    • Stopped passing the ball to someone → social rejection. 

      • They think they are playing against real people but it’s really the computer. 

    • Compared to controls who still got the ball passed to them.

  • Social rejection increases AC activity.

  • AC activity is correlated with self-reported distress. 

  • People who are more anxious (high neuroticism) are more easily affected by both physical and social pain.

  • Extroverts are less sensitive to social rejection and physical pain because they have more positive coping responses to these threats. 

    • They have a higher level of psycho-social resources (extraversion, high optimism, and high self-esteem). 

• Tele-communication center to send out messages to other parts of the brain/body to react to emotions. 

• Demonstrates the most activity when people feel rejected (more than amygdala). 

Frontal lobes (prefrontal cortex, PFC): 

• Higher cognitive functions.

  • Social understanding and self-control.

  • Emotions and decision-making.

  • Planning. 

  • How people respond to pleasant and unpleasant stimuli.

• Lateralization (specialization) of emotion.

  • Left PFC activity is linked with positive emotions.

  • Right PFC activity is linked with negative emotions.

• Stable individual differences:

  • Left → right activation increases positive affect.

  • Right → left activation increases negative affect. 

• Plays a role in social understanding and self-control, emotions and decision making, and how people respond to pleasant and unpleasant stimuli.

methods used to study the brain (pros/cons, how they work, personality connection)

• 3 primary methods for studying the brain: Case studies (brain damage), brain stimulation, and brain activity/imaging. 

• Case studies (brain damage): In-depth study of an individual, unusual case).

  • Phineas Gage and the role of the PFC in self-regulation. 

  • Ex: Self-knowledge → KC: amnesia patient.

    • Major hippocampal damage at age 30 from severe head injury (motorcycle accident).

    • Could not recall any specific past events (name, etc.).

    • Could accurately describe his personality.

      • Test-retest reliability 4 = 0.78.

      • Self-report and informant (mother) agreement r = 0.73.

  • Ex: Self-knowledge → WJ: temporary retrograde amnesia.

    • Brain was injured at age 18 after a bad fall.

    • No specific memories cover the last 6-7 months and inconsistent memories before then.

    • Could recall general facts about her life. 

    • Tested personality during and after amnesia.

      • Test-retest reliability r = 0.74

      • Self-report and informant (boyfriend) agreement r = 0.65

    • Suggests that personality self-judgments come from generalized knowledge, not recall of specific events or memories. 

      • Stored differently than “normal” memories.

• 7. Brain stimulation/brain imaging.

  • EEG (electro-encephalography): Measures electrical activity on scalp.

    • Can detect very rapid changes (strength: very quick).

    • But, it is hard to localize specific brain regions, especially subcortical ones.

    • ERP (event-related potential): Electrical activity is time-locked to a particular stimulus or event. 

  • fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging): Magnetic fields measure blood flow changes.

    • Strength: excellent spatial resolution (specific brain structures).

    • Not as fast as EEG. 

    • Ex: Do agreeable people automatically regulate negative emotions?

      • Previous research: Agreeable people report regulating emotions more, and the PFC is associated with regulation (especially the right PFC for negative emotions).

        • Self-report.

      • Current study: 48 participants viewed emotional faces and PFC activity was measured → agreeable people show more right PFC activity when viewing fearful (but not neutral) faces → evidence for autonomic emotion regulation (happened automatically). 

  • Research methods make it possible to observe which parts of the brain are most active.

autonomic nervous system function - different components - measures used to examine ans activity

• Parasympathetic (rest and digest): Regulates body functions to conserve energy.

  • Ex: eco setting in car.

• Sympathetic (fight or flight): Mobilizes the body’s responses to stress. 

  • Spike in BP, HR, cortisol, etc. (ex: sport mode in car).

  • Skin conductance (electrodermal activity): Measures sympathetic nervous system activation/activity → increases in sweat production. 

    • Ex: lie detector test.

• Eye-blink Startle response: Measures ANS activity by measuring the strength of the eye-blink startle response. 

  • Negative mood → larger startle response (defensive readiness).

  • Positive moods → smaller startle response (relaxed state). 

  • Heightened response in anxious subjects. 

  • Does rejection automatically activate defensive responses for rejection sensitive people?

    • Rejection sensitivity: Tendency to expect, perceive, and react negatively to rejection. 

  • Ex: Participants viewed artistic paintings depicting social rejection vs social acceptance, and their eye-blink startle response was measured while viewing the pictures. 

    • Rejection-sensitive people showed increased eye-blink to rejection vs acceptance images.

brain asymmetry (lateralization) - how its measured - how it relates to personality and affective style

• Lateralization (specialization) of emotion.

  • Left PFC activity is linked with positive emotions.

  • Right PFC activity is linked with negative emotions.

• Stable individual differences:

  • Left → right activation increases positive affect.

  • Right → left activation increases negative affect. 

• Plays a role in social understanding and self-control, emotions and decision making, and how people respond to pleasant and unpleasant stimuli.

neurotransmitters and hormones relation to personality: norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, testosterone, cortisol, estrogen

FINISH LATER

DeYoung proposed links between Big 5 traits

FINISH LATER

phrenology

• Phrenology: Early theories of brain structures. 

  • Predicting what is happening in the brain based on how the skull feels. 

  • Now discredited.