Intro Psych: Exam 1 Term List

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Dependent Variable

The outcome; the variable that may change in the experiment as a response to changes in the independent variable

Independent Variable

A manipulated experimental factor; the variable that the experimenter changes to see what its effects are

Control group

The participants in an experiment who are as much like the experimental group as possible and who are treated in every way like the experimental group except for a manipulated factor, the independent variable

Descriptive Research

Research that determines the basic dimensions of a phenomenon-defining what it is, how often it occurs, and so on…

Double-blind Experiment

An experimental design in which neither the experimenter nor the participants are aware of which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group until results are calculated

External Validity

The degree to which an experimental design actually reflects the real-world issues it is supposed to address

Internal Validity

The degree to which changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable

Longitudinal Design

A special kind of systematic observation used by correlational researchers that involves obtaining measures of the variables of interest in multiple waves over time

Meta-Analysis

A statistical procedure that summarizes a large body of evidence from the research literature on a particular topic, allowing the researcher to assess the strength of relationship between variables

Correlational Research

Research that examines the relationship between variables in order to find out whether and how two variables change together

Placebo Effect

A phenomenon in which the expectations of the participants, rather than the actual treatment, produces an outcome

Random Assignment

The assignment of participants to experimental groups by chance to reduce the likelihood that a study’s results will be due to preexisting differences between groups

Operational Definition

A definition that provides an objective description of how a variable is going to be measured and observed in a particular study

Cross-Sectional Design

A type of correlational study in which variables are measured at a single part in time

Case-Study

An in-depth look at a single individual

Third Variable Problem

The circumstances in which a variable that has not been measured accounts for the relationship between the two variables. Also known as confounds/confounding variables

Action Potential

The brief wave of positive electrical charge that sweeps down the axon

Amygdala

An almond-shaped structure within the base of the temporal lobe that is involved in the discrimination of objects that are necessary for the organisms survival, such as appropriate food, mates and social rivals. There is one amygdala in each hemisphere of the brain

Corpus Callosum

The large bundle of axons that connects the brain’s two hemispheres, responsible for relaying information between two sides

Brain Stem

A stemlike area that includes much of the hindbrain (excluding the cerebellum) and the midbrain; it connects with the spinal cord at its lower end and then extends upward to encase the reticular formation in the midbrain

Frontal Lobes

The portions of the cerebral cortex behind the forehead that are involved in personality, intelligence and the control of voluntary muscles

Hippocampus

The structure in the limbic system that has a special role in the storage of memory

Neural Networks

Networks of nerve cells that integrate sensory input and motor output

Hypothalamus

A small forebrain structure, located just below the thalamus, that monitors three pleasurable activities-eating, drinking and sex- as well as emotion stress and reward

Neurotransmitters

Chemical substances that are stored in very tiny sacs within the terminal buttons and involved in transmitting information across a synaptic gap to the next neuron

Plasticity

The brains special physical capacity for change

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The network of nerves that connects the brain and the spinal cord to other parts of the body

Sympathetic Nervous System

The part of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body to mobilize it for action and thus is involved in the experience of stress

Temporal Lobe

Structures in the cerebral cortex that are located just above the ears and are involved in hearing, language processing and memory (people with damage to this part of the brain cannot retain long-term memory)

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body

Synapses

Tiny spaces between neurons; the gaps between neurons are refered to as synaptic gaps (transmi electrical or chemical signals from one neuron to another cell - NOT TEXTBOOK)

Binocular Cues

Depth cues that depend on the combination of images in the left and right eyes and on the way the way the two eyes work together

Bottom-Up Processing

The operation in sensation and perception in which sensory receptors register information about the external environment and send it up to the brain for interpretation

Top-Down Processing

The operation in sensation and perception, launched by cognitive processing in the brain’s higher levels, that allows the organism to sense what is happening and to apply a framework to information from the world

Cones

The receptor cells in the retina that allow for color perception

Rods

The receptor cells in the retina that are sensitive to light but not very useful for color vision (Good for night vision - NOT IN TEXTBOOK)

Gestalt Psychology

A school of thought interested in how people naturally organize their perceptions according to certain patterns

Figure-Ground Relationship

The principle by which we organize the perceptual field into stimuli that stand out (figure) and those that are left over (group) (THIS IS A GESTALT PRINCIPLE)

Opponent-Process Theory

Theory stating that cells in the visual system respond to complementary pairs of red-green and blue-yellow colors; a given cell might be excited by red and inhibited by green, whereas another cell might be excited by yellow and inhibited by blue

Priming

The activation of information that people already have in storage to help them remember new information better and faster

Selective Attention

The act of focussing on a specific aspect of experience while ignoring others

Trichromatic Theory

Theory stating that color perception is produced by three types of cone receptors in the retina that are particularly sensitive to different, but overlapping, ranges of wavelengths

Sensory Adaption

A change in the responsiveness of the sensory system based on the average level of surrounding stimuli (ex: acclimating to a cold pool)

Weber’s Law

The principle that two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount) to be perceived as different

Latent Content

According to Freud, a dream’s hidden content; its unconscious true meaning

Reticular Activating System

A network of structures including brain stem, medulla and thalamus that are involved in the experience of arousal and engagement with the environment

Theory of Mind

Individuals’s understanding that they and others, think feel and have private experiences

REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep

An active stage of sleep during which dreaming occurs

Circadian Rhythms

Daily behavioral or physiological cycles that involve the sleep/wake cycle, body temperature, blood pressure and blood-sugar level (Sleep = the body pumps out melatonin but when woken the body suppresses the melatonin based on light cues = NOT IN TEXTBOOK

Executive Function

Higher-order, complex cognitive process, including thinking, planning and problem solving (prefrontal cortex)

Meditation

The attainment of a peaceful state of mind in which thoughts are not occupied by worry; the mediator is mindfully present to their thoughts and feelings but is not consumed by them

Emotion-Focused Coping

The coping strategy that involves responding to the stress that one is feeling- trying to manage one’s emotional reaction- rather than focussing on the problem itself

General Adaption Syndrome

Selye’s term for the common effects of stressful demands on the body, consisting of three stages: alarm, resistance and exhaustion

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA)

The complex set of interactions among the hypothalamus (emotion, stress, reward), the pituitary gland (controls and regulates other glands), and the adrenal gland (regulates mood, energy and ability to cope) which regulates various body processes and controls reactions to stressful events

Problem-Focused Coping

The coping strategy of squarely facing one’s troubles and trying to solve them

Positive Reappraisal

Reinterpreting a potentially stressful experience as less threatening, more valuable, or even beneficial

Theory of Planned Behavior

Theoretical model that includes the basic ideas of the theory of reasoned action (effective change = individuals have specific intentions about their behaviors, positive attitudes about behavior change and to perceive their social group looks positively on the new behavior as well) but adds the person’s perceptions of control over the outcome

Social Support

Information and feedback from others indicating that one is loved and cared for, esteemed and valued, and included in a network of communication and mutual obligation

Behavioral Medicine

An interdisciplinary field that focuses on developing and integrating behavioral and biomedical knowledge to promote health and reduce illness; overlaps with health psychology

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for and use information that supports one’s ideas rather than refutes them

Availability Heuristic

A prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to report falsely after the fact that one has accurately predicted an outcome (ex: “I knew that” after an event took place and you didn’t know it beforehand)

Intellectual Disability or Intellectual Development Disorder

A condition of limited mental ability that affects an individual’s functioning (conceptual skills, social skills and practical skills) in everyday life

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

An individual’s mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100

Representativeness Heuristic

The tendency to make judgements about group membership based on physical appearance or the match between a person and one’s stereotype of a group rather than on available base rate information

Base Rate Neglect

The tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific vivid information (ex: The avg exam scores for a test was 75% and when asked to guess a random persons score 75 would be a good answer but the person’s score may differ)

Functional Fixedness

Failing to solve a problem as a result of fixation on a thing’s usual function

Heuristics

Shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem BUT DO NOT GUARANTEE AN ANSWER

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Sternberg’s theory that intelligence comes in three forms: analytical, creative and practical/put ideas into practice.

Broaden-And-build Model

Fredrickson’s model of positive emotion stating that the function of positive emotions lies in their effects on an individual’ attention and ability to build resources (ex: positive moods help us to see the big picture thus helping us think outside the box)

Extrinsic Motivation

Motivation that involves external incentives such as rewards and punishments

Intrinsic Motivation

Motivation based on internal factors such as organismic needs (competence, relatedness and autonomy), as well as curiosity, challenge and fun (engaging in behavior because we enjoy it)

Homeostasis

The tendency to maintain an equilibrium or steady state of balance (regulating temp, blood-sugar levels, potassium levels, sodium levels and oxygenation) (ex: when in an icy pool the body uses energy to maintain its normal temp)

Yerkes-Dodson Law

The psychological principle stating that performance is best under conditions of moderate arousal rather than low or high arousal (too low = lethargic, too high = too nervous to concentrate)

Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s theory that human needs must be satisfied in the following sequence: Physiological needs, Safety, Love and Belongingness, Esteem and Self-Actualization (Physiological is the base and Self-Actualization is the tip/hardest to acquire)

Display Rules

Sociocultural standards that determine when, where and how emotions should be expressed

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

The idea that facial expressions can influence emotions as well as reflect them

Negative Affect

Negative emotions such as anger, guilt and sadness

Self-Actualization

The motivation to develop one’s full potential as a human being-the highest and most elusive of Maslow’s proposed needs