Youth and Adolescents Exam 2

Skinner’s influence on Bandura & why Bandura moves beyond simple reinforcement

Bandura valued Skinner's rigorous empirical approach but argued that simple reinforcement cannot account for human learning, introducing cognitive mediation and observational learning.

Conditioning

Learning process where a stimulus becomes associated with a response through association or consequences.

Positive Reinforcement

Strengthening a behavior by adding a rewarding/pleasant stimulus after the behavior occurs.

Negative Reinforcement

Strengthening a behavior by removing an aversive/unpleasant stimulus after the behavior occurs.

Punishment

Weakening or decreasing the likelihood of a behavior by presenting an aversive consequence or removing a positive one.

Vicarious Reinforcement

Learning or having one's behavior strengthened by observing someone else receive reinforcement for that behavior.

Self-Reinforcement

Reinforcing one's own behavior by granting oneself rewards or praise upon meeting personal standards.

Triadic Reciprocal Determinism

Bandura’s model showing that behavior, personal/cognitive factors, and environmental influences continuously interact and influence one another.

Self-Efficacy

An individual's belief in their capability to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific performance attainments.

Actual Performance (as source of self-efficacy)

Past mastery experiences; the most influential source of self-efficacy.

Vicarious Experience (as source of self-efficacy)

Observing models similar to oneself successfully perform a task (social comparison/modeling).

Verbal Persuasion (as source of self-efficacy)

Encouragement or discouragement from others regarding one's capability to perform a task.

Physiological Cues (as source of self-efficacy)

Interpreting one's physical and emotional states (e.g., anxiety vs. excitement) to judge personal capability.

Agency

The human capacity to exercise control over one's own life and make things happen through deliberate action.

Intentionality (component of agency)

Formulating action plans and strategies for future courses of action.

Forethought (component of agency)

Anticipating the likely consequences of prospective actions to motivate and guide actions.

Self-Reactiveness (component of agency)

The process of monitoring progress and regulating one's own behavior to meet goals.

Self-Reflectiveness (component of agency)

Evaluating one's own motivations, values, and the adequacy of one's thoughts and actions.

Sex

Biological and physiological characteristics that define males and females (e.g., chromosomes, hormones, anatomy).

Gender

Sociocultural roles, behaviors, expressions, and identities that societies consider appropriate for men and women.

Gender-Role Expectations

Societal beliefs and expectations regarding how males and females should think, act, and feel.

Gender Similarity Conclusion

Research consensus that males and females are far more similar than different overall across psychological variables.

Gender Role Transcendence

Evaluating human competence and behavior on the basis of personal merit rather than masculinity, femininity, or androgyny.

Gender Identity

An individual's deeply felt, internal sense of being male, female, or another gender.

Gender Expression

The external presentation of gender through clothing, behavior, hairstyle, mannerisms, and voice.

Sexual Orientation

An enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attractions to men, women, or other genders.

Nonbinary Identity

A gender identity that does not fit strictly into the socially constructed binary categories of exclusively man or woman.

Trans Community

Umbrella term for people whose gender identity differs from the sex they were assigned at birth.

Misgendering

Referring to someone using a word, pronoun, or form of address that does not correctly reflect their gender identity.

Transmisia

Anti-trans prejudice, discrimination, or hatred directed against transgender individuals.

Report Talk

Communication style focused on exchanging information, preserving independence, and displaying skill (stereotypically masculine).

Rapport Talk

Communication style focused on establishing connections, intimacy, and negotiating relationships (stereotypically feminine).

Gender Intensification

Increased psychological and behavioral pressure to conform to traditional gender roles during adolescence.

Erikson’s Identity vs. Identity Confusion

The central psychosocial task of adolescence involving figuring out who one is, what one values, and where one is going.

Psychosocial Moratorium

A period during adolescence when youth are free from adult responsibilities to explore different identities and roles.

Identification (Identity)

Adopting the values, beliefs, or roles of others (such as parents or role models) during identity development.

Identity Commitments

Investment in a set of values, beliefs, goals, and roles after a period of exploration.

Identity Achievement

Marcia status: High exploration, high commitment. Has explored options and committed to an identity.

Identity Foreclosure

Marcia status: Low exploration, high commitment. Adopted an identity (often parental) without exploring alternatives.

Identity Moratorium

Marcia status: High exploration, low commitment. Actively exploring options but has not yet made commitments.

Identity Diffusion

Marcia status: Low exploration, low commitment. Lacks clear direction, has not explored, and cares little about identity.

Biculturalism

Cultural adaptation model maintaining ties to both one's culture of origin and the dominant/new culture.

Assimilation

Cultural adaptation model adopting the values and customs of the dominant culture while abandoning the culture of origin.

Marginality

Cultural adaptation model experiencing exclusion or a lack of psychological connection to both the culture of origin and the dominant culture.

Autonomy

The capacity to act, think, and feel on one’s own without reducing it to emotional detachment from parents.

Emotional Autonomy

Aspect of autonomy involving a shift away from childish dependencies on parents and toward individuation.

Behavioral Autonomy

The capacity to make independent decisions and follow through with them.

Cognitive Autonomy

Having independent values, opinions, beliefs, and moral reasoning.

Deidealization

The process of seeing parents as fallible human beings rather than all-knowing figures; a component of emotional autonomy.

Individuation

The gradual process of developing a distinct, independent sense of self separate from parents.

Parents as People (component)

Viewing parents as complex individuals with their own histories, struggles, and perspectives.

Attachment & Autonomy

Social-cognitive perspective showing that secure attachment and autonomy are complementary, not opposites (critique of Anna Freud).

Barometric Self-Esteem

Fluctuating, momentary evaluations of self-worth that change rapidly in response to daily events and experiences.

Baseline Self-Esteem

Stable, enduring global evaluations of self-worth over time.

EMA (Experience Sampling Method)

Research method linked to measuring barometric self-esteem by sampling individuals' states multiple times a day.

Actual Self

How a person perceives their current characteristics, abilities, and traits.

Possible Selves

What an individual hopes or expects to become in the future.

Feared Self

What an individual dreads or fears becoming in the future.

Self-Concept

A cognitive description and evaluation of one's own attributes, abilities, and values.

Self-Esteem

The affective/evaluative component of the self; overall sense of self-worth.

Physical Appearance (Adolescent Domain)

The self-perception domain typically found to have the strongest correlation with global adolescent self-esteem.

Social Loneliness

Deficit in social network quality or quantity (feeling a lack of friends, groups, or community connection).

Emotional Loneliness

Deficit in close, intimate attachment relationships (feeling a lack of deep, meaningful emotional bonds).