UNIT ZERO

Curiosity

An appetite to explore and understand without being misled.

Skepticism

Doubting conclusions until supported by hard evidence.

Humility

Admitting you might be wrong and staying open to new perspectives.

Critical Thinking

Examining assumptions and evaluating sources rather than accepting conclusions.

Peer Review

Experts checking a study for accuracy before it's public.

Falsifiability

The requirement that a hypothesis must be capable of being disproven.

Scientific Method

A self-correcting process of observing, testing, and analyzing.

Theory

A broad explanation that organizes observations and predicts future outcomes.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable 'If/Then' statement about the relationship between variables.

Operational Definition

Precise procedures used to measure variables so others can repeat the study.

Replication

Repeating a study to see if the original findings hold up with different participants.

Defensible Claim

A statement regarding a psychological concept that can be supported by evidence.

Scientifically Derived Evidence

Facts and data gathered specifically through the scientific method.

Refute/Modify

Using new data to disprove or change a previously held claim.

Cognitive Biases

Illogical errors in thinking often caused by mental shortcuts.

Hindsight Bias

Tendency to believe we predicted an outcome after it happened.

Overconfidence

Thinking we know more than we do or overestimating our abilities.

Heuristics

Quick rules of thumb used to process info and make fast decisions.

Confirmation Bias

Searching only for info that supports your current beliefs.

Authority Bias

Believing someone purely because of their status or position.

Illusory Correlation

Perceiving a relationship between two things when none exists.

Wording Effect

How specific phrasing of questions influences a participant's response.

Experiment

The ONLY method that proves one thing caused another.

Independent Variable (IV)

The factor the researcher intentionally manipulates.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The outcome factor being measured.

Confounding Variable

An unintended factor that skews results.

Random Assignment

Placing participants into groups by chance to reduce bias.

Experimental Group

The participants who receive the real treatment.

Control Group

The participants who get no treatment; used for comparison.

Single-Blind Study

Participants don't know if they are in the experimental or control group.

Double-Blind Procedure

Neither participants nor researchers know who got treatment.

Placebo

An inactive substance (like a sugar pill) given to the control group.

Placebo Effect

Results caused by expectations alone rather than an active ingredient.

Correlational Study

Measures how well two variables vary together; NO cause.

Case Study

An in-depth investigation of an individual that cannot be generalized.

Naturalistic Observation

Recording behavior in real-world settings without interference.

Hawthorne Effect

The tendency for people to act differently when being observed.

Meta-Analysis

Combining and analyzing results from many different studies.

Longitudinal Study

Research that follows the same group of people over many years.

Quasi-Experiment

A study that resembles an experiment but lacks random assignment.

Survey

Collecting data on opinions and experiences through questionnaires.

Directionality Problem

Uncertainty in correlation about which variable causes the other.

Third Variable Problem

When a correlation is actually caused by a separate, unmeasured factor.

Population

The entire group a researcher wants to understand.

Sample

The small selection of the population actually being studied.

Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the population's characteristics.

Random Sample

Every member of the population has an equal chance to be chosen.

Stratified Sampling

Dividing the population into strata (like grades) then picking.

Convenience Sampling

Choosing participants who are easiest to find.

Sampling Bias

A flawed process resulting in a sample that doesn't represent the population.

Generalizability

How well results from a sample apply to the whole population.

Quantitative Data

Objective data that is statistical in nature.

Qualitative Data

Subjective data describing thoughts and opinions.

Descriptive Statistics

Numerical data used to organize group characteristics.

Inferential Statistics

Numerical data used to generalize from a sample to a population.

Mean

The sum of scores divided by the total number of scores.

Median

The middle score; also called the 50th percentile.

Mode

The score or scores that occur most frequently.

Bimodal

A distribution with exactly two most-frequent scores.

Multimodal

A data set containing more than one mode.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores.

Standard Deviation

A standardized measure of how much individual scores vary from the average.

Normal Distribution

Symmetrical curve where the mean, median, and mode are the same.

Z-Score

Number of standard deviations a point is from the mean.

Percentile Rank

Percentage of scores equal to or lower than yours.

Positive Skew

Distribution with scores bunched at the low end.

Negative Skew

Distribution with scores bunched at the high end.

Regression Toward the Mean

Extreme scores falling back toward the average over time.

Correlation Coefficient (r)

Number (-1 to +1) measuring relationship.

Null Hypothesis

The 'no relationship' prediction; the starting point of a test.

Alternative Hypothesis

The prediction the researcher actually wants to support.

Statistical Significance

Statement that results are unlikely to have occurred by chance.

p-value

If p < 0.05, the results are statistically significant.

Effect Size

Measures the practical magnitude of a significant result.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Group ensuring studies are safe/ethical.

Informed Consent

Participants agreeing to join after hearing the study plan.

Informed Assent

A minor's agreement to participate after parental consent.

Confidentiality

The ethical requirement to keep participant data secret.

Debriefing

Explaining the truth and any deceptions after the study.

Deception

Misleading participants; must be justified and debriefed.

Confederate

A research team member pretending to be a participant.

Self-Report Bias

Lying on surveys to look better to researchers.

Social Desirability Bias

Answering questions to be viewed favorably by others.

Likert Scale

Scale measuring intensity of agreement.

Biopsychosocial

Integrating biological, psychological, and social factors.

Psychodynamic

Focuses on unconscious drives and childhood drama.

Behavioral

Focuses on observable actions and environment.

Biological

Focuses on physiological causes of behavior.

Cognitive

Focuses on mental processes like memory and perception.

Evolutionary

How natural selection promoted specific genes.

Humanistic

Emphasizes personal growth and free will.

Social-Cultural

How culture and situations influence us.

Nature vs. Nurture

Debate over contributions of biology vs. experience.