17,20,21 chem 3

single or series of galvanic cells designed for use as a source of electrical power

primary cells

nonrechargeable battery, suitable for single use only

secondary cells

battery designed to allow recharging

dry cell

primary battery, also called a zinc-carbon battery, based on the spontaneous oxidation of zinc by manganese(IV)

alkaline batteries

primary battery similar to a dry cell that uses an alkaline (often potassium hydroxide) electrolyte; designed to be an improved replacement for the dry cell, but with more energy storage and less electrolyte leakage than typical dry cell

nickel cadmium battery

rechargeable battery based on Ni/Cd half-cells with applications similar to those of lithium ion batteries

lithium ion batteries

widely used rechargeable battery commonly used in portable electronic devices, based on lithium ion transfer between the anode and cathode

lead acid battery

rechargeable battery commonly used in automobiles; it typically comprises six galvanic cells based on Pb half-reactions in acidic solution

fuel cell

devices similar to galvanic cells that require a continuous feed of redox reactants; also called a flow battery

corrosion

degradation of metal via a natural electrochemical process

galvanization

method of protecting iron or similar metals from corrosion by coating with a thin layer of more easily oxidized zinc.

cathodic protection

approach to preventing corrosion of a metal object by connecting it to a sacrificial anode composed of a more readily oxidized metal

electrolysis

process using electrical energy to cause a nonspontaneous process to occur

addition reaction

reaction in which a double carbon-carbon bond forms a single carbon-carbon bond by the addition of a reactant. Typical reaction for an alkene.

alcohol

organic compound with a hydroxyl group (–OH) bonded to a carbon atom

aldehyde

organic compound containing a carbonyl group bonded to two hydrogen atoms or a hydrogen atom and a carbon substituent

alkane

molecule consisting of only carbon and hydrogen atoms connected by single (σ) bonds

alkene

molecule consisting of carbon and hydrogen containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond

alkyl group

substituent, consisting of an alkane missing one hydrogen atom, attached to a larger structure

alkyne

molecule consisting of carbon and hydrogen containing at least one carbon-carbon triple bond

amide

organic molecule that features a nitrogen atom connected to the carbon atom in a carbonyl group

amine

organic molecule in which a nitrogen atom is bonded to one or more alkyl group

aromatic hydrocarbon

cyclic molecule consisting of carbon and hydrogen with delocalized alternating carbon-carbon single and double bonds, resulting in enhanced stability

carbonyl group

carbon atom double bonded to an oxygen atom

carboxylic acid

organic compound containing a carbonyl group with an attached hydroxyl group

ester

organic compound containing a carbonyl group with an attached oxygen atom that is bonded to a carbon substituent

ether

organic compound with an oxygen atom that is bonded to two carbon atoms

functional group

part of an organic molecule that imparts a specific chemical reactivity to the molecule

ketone

organic compound containing a carbonyl group with two carbon substituents attached to it

organic compound

natural or synthetic compound that contains carbon

saturated hydrocarbon

molecule containing carbon and hydrogen that has only single bonds between carbon atoms

skeletal structure

shorthand method of drawing organic molecules in which carbon atoms are represented by the ends of lines and bends in between lines, and hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon atoms are not shown (but are understood to be present by the context of the structure)

substituent

branch or functional group that replaces hydrogen atoms in a larger hydrocarbon chain

substitution reaction

reaction in which one atom replaces another in a molecule

Nuclear chemistry

study of the structure of atomic nuclei and processes that change nuclear structure

nucleons

collective term for protons and neutrons in a nucleus

strong nuclear force

force of attraction between nucleons that holds a nucleus together

nuclear binding energy

energy lost when an atom’s nucleons are bound together (or the energy needed to break a nucleus into its constituent protons and neutrons)

mass-energy equivalence equation

Albert Einstein’s relationship showing that mass and energy are equivalent

electron volts (eV)

measurement unit of nuclear binding energies, with 1 eV equaling the amount energy due to the moving an electron across an electric potential difference of 1 volt

band of stability

(also, belt of stability, zone of stability, or valley of stability) region of graph of number of protons versus number of neutrons containing stable (nonradioactive) nuclides

radioactivity

phenomenon exhibited by an unstable nucleon that spontaneously undergoes change into a nucleon that is more stable; an unstable nucleon is said to be radioactive

magic numbers

nuclei with specific numbers of nucleons that are within the band of stability

radioisotope

isotope that is unstable and undergoes conversion into a different, more stable isotope

binding energy per nucleon

total binding energy for the nucleus divided by the number of nucleons in the nucleus

Alpha particles

(α or 𝟒𝟐⁢𝐇𝐞 or 𝟒𝟐𝛂) high-energy helium nucleus; a helium atom that has lost two electrons and contains two protons and two neutrons

Beta particles

(𝛃 or 𝟎−𝟏𝐞 or 𝟎−𝟏𝛃) high-energy electron

Positrons

(0+1β or 0+1e) antiparticle to the electron; it has identical properties to an electron, except for having the opposite (positive) charge

nuclear reactions

change to a nucleus resulting in changes in the atomic number, mass number, or energy state

antimatter

particles with the same mass but opposite properties (such as charge) of ordinary particles

gamma rays (γ)

(γ or 𝟎𝟎𝛄) short wavelength, high-energy electromagnetic radiation that exhibits wave-particle duality

radioactive decay

spontaneous decay of an unstable nuclide into another nuclide

parent nuclide

unstable nuclide that changes spontaneously into another (daughter) nuclide

daughter nuclide

nuclide produced by the radioactive decay of another nuclide; may be stable or may decay further

Beta (β) decay

breakdown of a neutron into a proton, which remains in the nucleus, and an electron, which is emitted as a beta particle

Gamma emission (γ emission)

decay of an excited-state nuclide accompanied by emission of a gamma ray

Positron emission (β⁺ decay)

(also, β⁺ decay) conversion of a proton into a neutron, which remains in the nucleus, and a positron, which is emitted

Electron capture

combination of a core electron with a proton to yield a neutron within the nucleus

radioactive decay series

chains of successive disintegrations (radioactive decays) that ultimately lead to a stable end-product

half-life

(t_1/2) time required for half of the atoms in a radioactive sample to decay

radiometric dating

use of radioisotopes and their properties to date the formation of objects such as archeological artifacts, formerly living organisms, or geological formations

radiocarbon dating

highly accurate means of dating objects 30,000–50,000 years old that were derived from once-living matter; achieved by calculating the ratio of 146C:126C in the object vs. the ratio of 146C:126C in the present-day atmosphere