Cue Cards (PHYSIOLOGY TEST 2)

(based on practice test each week)

What is the nephron?

The kidney’s functional unit, where blood is filtered and urine is formed.

What can pass through the glomerular filtration membrane?

Water and small solutes. Blood cells and large proteins, such as albumin, normally stay in the blood.

Which vessels carry blood into and away from the glomerulus?

The afferent arteriole brings blood in; the efferent arteriole carries it away.

What are the three main pressures involved in filtration?

Blood hydrostatic pressure pushes fluid out. Capsular hydrostatic pressure and blood colloid osmotic pressure oppose filtration.

What is the nephron pathway?

Glomerular capsule → PCT → descending limb → ascending limb → DCT → collecting duct.

What happens in the PCT?

Most water, ions and useful nutrients, including glucose, are reabsorbed into the blood.

What happens in the nephron loop?

The descending limb loses water; the ascending limb loses Na⁺ and Cl⁻ but little water. This helps the kidneys concentrate urine.

What happens in the DCT and collecting duct?

They fine-tune the filtrate. The DCT reabsorbs or secretes selected substances; the collecting duct adjusts water reabsorption.

What do ADH and aldosterone do?

ADH increases water reabsorption. Aldosterone increases Na⁺ reabsorption and K⁺ secretion.

What is the renal threshold?

The blood concentration at which a substance first appears in urine. Glucose can appear when its reabsorption transporters are saturated.

What happens when blood pH rises?

The kidneys excrete more bicarbonate and conserve hydrogen ions.

What else do the kidneys regulate?

Blood pressure, blood volume, pH and ion levels; they also produce EPO and help activate vitamin D. Metabolism cue cards — essentials

What is metabolism?

All chemical reactions in the body. Catabolism breaks molecules down and releases energy; anabolism builds molecules and uses energy.

What happens during oxidation and reduction?

Oxidation is the loss of electrons; reduction is the gain of electrons. NAD and FAD carry electrons during metabolism.

What are the two ways cells make ATP?

Substrate-level phosphorylation transfers a phosphate directly to ADP. Oxidative phosphorylation uses the electron transport chain and ATP synthase.

What happens during glycolysis?

In the cytoplasm, one glucose splits into two pyruvate, producing 2 ATP net and 2 NADH.

What happens to pyruvate?

With oxygen, it becomes acetyl-CoA and enters the Krebs cycle. When oxygen is limited, it can be converted to lactate.

What are the four stages of glucose metabolism?

Glycolysis → acetyl-CoA formation → Krebs cycle → electron transport chain and chemiosmosis.

Where does the Krebs cycle occur, and what does it produce?

In the mitochondrial matrix. It releases carbon dioxide and makes energy carriers that help produce ATP.

How does the electron transport chain make ATP?

NADH and FADH₂ deliver electrons. Their energy drives hydrogen ions through ATP synthase, which makes ATP. Oxygen accepts electrons at the end, forming water. Reproductive system cue cards — essentials

Where are sperm produced and where do they mature?

Produced in the seminiferous tubules; mature and are stored in the epididymis.

What is the sperm pathway?

Seminiferous tubules → epididymis → ductus deferens → ejaculatory duct → urethra.

What do FSH and LH do in males?

FSH supports sperm production through Sertoli cells. LH stimulates Leydig cells to produce testosterone.

What is spermatogenesis?

The process that turns diploid spermatogonia into haploid sperm through mitosis, meiosis and spermiogenesis.

Where does fertilisation usually occur, and what does it produce?

Usually in the ampulla of the uterine tube; it produces a zygote with 46 chromosomes.

What are the three germ layers?

Ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. They develop into the body’s tissues and organs.

What does the placenta do?

Exchanges oxygen, nutrients and waste between maternal and foetal blood, and produces pregnancy hormones.

What does hCG do early in pregnancy?

Maintains the corpus luteum so it continues producing progesterone and oestrogen.

What are the foetal circulation shunts?

Ductus venosus, foramen ovale and ductus arteriosus. They help blood bypass the liver and lungs before birth.

What are the three stages of labour?

Dilation, expulsion of the baby, and delivery of the placenta.

Which hormones control lactation?

Prolactin stimulates milk production; oxytocin causes milk let-down.