3.1.1 sustainable urban development

What are the 3 dimensions of sustainable urban development (SUD)?

• Economic vitality: Economic growth, employment and innovation.

• Environmental integrity: Resource conservation, pollution reduction and environmental protection.

• Social well-being: Quality of life, equity and access to essential services.

SUD requires balancing all 3 dimensions.

What is the difference between sustainability and liveability?

• Sustainability: Meeting present needs without compromising future generations' ability to meet theirs.

• Liveability: Quality of life experienced by people living in a city.

What indicators measure sustainable urban development?

• Economic: GDP per capita, employment rates, economic diversity.

• Environmental: Air/water quality, renewable energy adoption, waste management, green spaces, biodiversity.

• Social: Healthcare, education, affordable housing, community engagement.

Other indicators:

• Resource efficiency → water/energy consumption, recycling rates.

• Transportation → public transport usage, congestion.

• Climate resilience → disaster preparedness and adaptation.

What are the difficulties in measuring sustainable urban development?

• Choosing dimensions: Difficult to balance economic, environmental and social priorities.

• Selecting indicators: No universally accepted indicators; different indicators produce conflicting results.

• Data availability: Limited or unreliable data, especially in developing countries.

• Interconnected dimensions: Difficult to isolate the impact of individual factors.

• Time lag: Urban changes take time to become measurable.

What are composite indicators of sustainable urban development?

Composite indicators combine multiple indicators to assess overall urban sustainability.

Examples:

• Global City Indicators: City services, quality of life and sustainability.

• Green City Index: Environmental performance.

• Happy Planet Index (HPI): Human well-being relative to environmental impact.

Define urbanisation, urban growth and urbanism.

• Urbanisation: Increase in the proportion of a country's population living in urban areas.

• Urban growth: Increase in urban population through natural increase and migration.

• Urbanism: Adoption of urban lifestyles, values and behaviours.

How do urbanisation patterns differ between DCs and LDCs?

DCs:

• Generally higher urbanisation levels.

• Slower urbanisation rates.

• Urbanisation occurred earlier.

LDCs:

• Generally lower urbanisation levels.

• Faster urbanisation rates.

• Rapid urbanisation occurring more recently.

What are the 3 main causes of urbanisation?

1. Rural–urban migration

• Push: Rural poverty, limited employment, poor services.

• Pull: Urban jobs, higher wages, better healthcare and education.

2. Natural increase

• Improved healthcare/sanitation → death rates ↓.

• Births exceed deaths → urban population ↑.

3. Reclassification

- Rural settlements develop urban characteristics → reclassified as urban → recorded urban population ↑.

How does rapid urbanisation cause infrastructure strain?

Rapid urbanisation → population ↑ → demand for transport, housing and sanitation ↑ → infrastructure development cannot keep pace.

Consequences:

• Traffic congestion.

• Overcrowding.

• Inadequate public services.

• Reduced quality of life.

Case Study: How has rapid urbanisation caused traffic congestion in Bangalore, India?

Rapid economic growth and IT industry expansion → rural–urban migration ↑ → population ↑.

Causes:

• Road infrastructure cannot keep pace with population growth.

• Narrow roads and limited capacity.

• Concentration of IT parks → heavy peak-hour traffic.

• Inadequate public transport and last-mile connectivity.

• Preference for private vehicles.

Impacts: → Traffic congestion ↑ → commuting time ↑ → transport efficiency and quality of life ↓.

How does rapid urbanisation increase resource consumption?

Population and economic activity ↑ → demand for water, energy and food ↑ → pressure on finite resources ↑.

Consequences:

• Resource depletion.

• Water and energy shortages.

• Environmental degradation.

• Competition for limited resources.

Case Study: What causes water stress in Cairo, Egypt?

1. Population growth → domestic, industrial and agricultural water demand ↑.

2. Dependence on Nile River → vulnerability to limited water supply.

3. Limited alternative water sources → groundwater over-extraction.

4. Industrial discharge, sewage and agricultural runoff → water pollution.

5. Outdated infrastructure → water leakages.

6. Climate change → higher temperatures and changing rainfall patterns.

7. Informal settlements → inadequate water infrastructure.

8. Agricultural irrigation → competition for water.

Overall: Rising demand + limited supply + inefficient management → water stress.

How does rapid urbanisation cause environmental degradation?

• GHG emissions: Industrialisation + transportation ↑ → fossil fuel combustion ↑ → emissions ↑.

• Deforestation: Urban expansion → vegetation cleared → habitat loss and biodiversity ↓.

• Urban Heat Island: Concrete/asphalt replace vegetation → heat retention ↑ → urban temperatures ↑.

• Air pollution: Vehicle and industrial emissions ↑ → air quality ↓.

• Waste generation: Population and consumption ↑ → waste ↑ → land/water pollution.

• Water stress: Water demand and over-extraction ↑ → water availability ↓.

What are the positive and negative impacts of urbanisation on SUD?

Positive:

• Economic growth and employment opportunities.

• Improved healthcare and education.

• Infrastructure development.

• Innovation and economies of scale.

Negative:

• Congestion and overcrowding.

• Housing shortages and inequality.

• Resource depletion.

• Pollution and environmental degradation.

Evaluation: Urbanisation is not inherently unsustainable; impacts depend on urban planning and resource management.

What causes urban population loss and counter-urbanisation?

Urban population loss:

• Deindustrialisation → job losses → outmigration.

• Poor quality of life → residents relocate.

• Ageing population + low birth rates → natural decrease.

• Migration of younger residents → population ↓.

Counter-urbanisation: Movement from urban areas to rural or suburban areas.

Causes:

• Desire for better quality of life.

• Lower housing costs.

• Reduced congestion and pollution.

• Improved transport and remote-working opportunities.

What are the consequences of urban population loss?

Economic:

• Consumer demand ↓ → business closures.

• Tax revenue ↓ → public services deteriorate.

Social:

• Schools/healthcare facilities close.

• Brain drain → skilled workforce ↓.

• Social isolation ↑.

Physical:

• Vacant properties and abandoned buildings.

• Neglected infrastructure.

• Urban blight and environmental degradation.

17

Case Study: What caused urban decline in Liverpool, UK, and how was it managed?

Causes:

• Deindustrialisation → decline in maritime trade, manufacturing and shipbuilding.

• Job losses → unemployment and outmigration.

• Housing deterioration and poor urban planning.

Impacts:

• Abandoned buildings and deteriorating infrastructure.

• Poverty, unemployment and social exclusion.

• Reduced economic activity and investment.

Management:

• Cultural regeneration → European Capital of Culture 2008.

• Economic diversification → tourism, creative and knowledge-based industries.

• Waterfront regeneration and mixed-use redevelopment.

What is an ecological footprint (EF) and ecological deficit?

Ecological footprint: Amount of biologically productive land and water needed to provide resources consumed and absorb waste generated by a population.

Measured in global hectares (gha).

Ecological deficit: Ecological footprint exceeds available biocapacity.

Carbon footprint: Measures greenhouse gas emissions rather than the total demand on biologically productive land and water.

Why do cities have high concentrations of waste and large ecological footprints?

Waste concentration:

• High population density → consumption ↑ → waste ↑.

• Higher incomes → consumption and packaging waste ↑.

• Industrial/commercial activities → waste ↑.

• Construction → demolition waste ↑.

Large ecological footprints:

• High energy and fossil fuel consumption.

• Resource-intensive lifestyles.

• High food and transport demand.

• High waste generation.

How do cities affect natural environments beyond their boundaries?

1. Resource extraction Urban demand ↑ → timber, minerals, water and food extraction elsewhere ↑ → resource depletion and habitat destruction.

2. Pollution displacement Waste exported → environmental degradation transferred elsewhere.

3. Food and energy dependence Imports → agricultural production, resource extraction and transportation impacts outside cities.

4. Ecological inequality Affluent cities consume more resources while environmental costs may be borne by less developed regions.

Case Study: What contributes to Singapore's ecological footprint?

• High consumption: Affluence → goods and energy consumption ↑.

• Food imports: Over 90% of food imported → environmental impacts overseas.

• Limited land: Restricted local food and renewable resource production.

• Fossil fuel dependence: Energy production → carbon emissions.

• Water demand: Imported water and energy-intensive treatment.

Case Study: How does Singapore's consumption affect other countries?

• Palm oil imports: Plantation expansion → deforestation and biodiversity loss.

• Water imports: Pressure on water resources in Johor, Malaysia.

• Sand imports: Extraction → habitat destruction and environmental degradation.

• Food imports: Overseas agricultural production and transportation → environmental impacts.

• Waste exports: Environmental burdens transferred elsewhere.

• LNG imports: Extraction and transportation → emissions and environmental damage.

How does Singapore manage its ecological footprint?

• Urban planning: City in a Garden, parks and green corridors.

• Water management: NEWater, recycling and desalination.

• Waste management: Waste-to-energy facilities and recycling.

• Energy efficiency: Green buildings and energy-efficient technologies.

• Renewable energy: Solar energy expansion.

Limitation: Resource imports mean environmental impacts may still be transferred overseas.

What is the difference between linear and circular urban metabolism?

Linear metabolism: Resource extraction → production → consumption → waste disposal.

• High resource extraction.

• Waste discarded.

• Greater pollution and resource depletion.

• Less sustainable.

Circular metabolism: Reduce → Reuse → Recycle → Resource recovery.

• Waste treated as a resource.

• Materials reused and recycled.

• Demand for virgin resources ↓.

• Waste and pollution ↓.

• More sustainable.

Key idea: Circular metabolism closes resource loops, reducing cities' environmental impacts.