U.S. Government and Politics

Who sets the boundaries of U.S. congressional districts?

State legislatures usually set the boundaries, although some states use independent redistricting commissions.

What is one option proposed by people who do not support this policy?

Using independent or bipartisan redistricting commissions to prevent partisan gerrymandering.

What is the difference between reapportionment and redistricting?

Reapportionment redistributes House seats among states based on population. Redistricting redraws the boundaries of electoral districts.

Why is the Interstate Commerce Clause important to Congress?

It gives Congress the power to regulate trade and economic activity between states.

How does a bill become a law?

A member of Congress introduces a bill, a committee reviews it, the chamber debates and votes on it, both the House and Senate pass the same version, and the president signs it or vetoes it. Congress can override a veto with a two-thirds vote in both chambers.

Who initiates bills?

Members of Congress. Revenue bills must originate in the House of Representatives.

What is the difference between the delegate and trustee roles of congresspeople?

A delegate votes according to constituents' wishes. A trustee uses their own judgment and expertise.

What does the Senate majority leader do?

Leads the majority party in the Senate and organizes its legislative agenda.

What does the Senate minority leader do?

Leads the minority party in the Senate and coordinates its opposition and strategy.

What does a whip do in Congress?

Counts votes, encourages party unity, and communicates party positions to members.

What does the Speaker of the House do?

Leads the House of Representatives, presides over proceedings, and helps control the legislative agenda.

What are the unique powers of the Senate?

It confirms presidential appointments, ratifies treaties with a two-thirds vote of senators present, and conducts impeachment trials.

What are the unique powers of the House of Representatives?

It originates revenue bills and impeaches federal officials.

What powers do the House and Senate share?

Passing laws, declaring war, approving federal spending, taxing, and conducting oversight.

How long is each member's term?

Representatives serve two-year terms. Senators serve six-year terms.

What are standing committees?

Permanent congressional committees that review bills, hold hearings, and oversee specific policy areas.

What is decided in the House Ways and Means Committee?

Major tax and revenue legislation, including federal taxes and Social Security.

What is decided in the Senate Judiciary Committee?

Issues involving the federal courts, constitutional matters, legal legislation, and federal judicial nominations.

What is decided in the House Rules Committee?

The rules for debating bills in the House, including debate time and which amendments can be considered.

What is a conference committee?

A temporary committee of House and Senate members that resolves differences between their versions of a bill.

What is an example of checks and balances in the federal government?

The president vetoes a bill passed by Congress, but Congress can override the veto with a two-thirds vote in both chambers.

In what ways does Congress check the powers of the federal courts?

The Senate confirms federal judges, Congress can impeach judges, establish and fund lower courts, and propose constitutional amendments.

What are the roles of the president?

Chief executive, commander in chief, chief diplomat, legislative leader, chief of state, party leader, economic leader, and guardian of the laws.

How can the president fulfill these roles?

By enforcing laws, leading the military, conducting foreign policy, recommending legislation, signing or vetoing bills, representing the country, and promoting their party's agenda.

What are the formal powers of the president?

Constitutional powers such as vetoing bills, serving as commander in chief, granting federal pardons, and appointing officials with Senate confirmation.

What are the informal powers of the president?

Powers based on influence and political practice, such as bargaining with Congress, appealing to the public, and issuing executive orders within legal authority.

Under what circumstances would the president get congressional approval of policies?

When their party controls Congress, the policy has bipartisan support, or public support is strong.

Under what conditions would the president NOT get congressional approval?

When the opposing party controls Congress, partisan conflict is high, or lawmakers oppose the president's policy.

What is the bureaucracy?

Government departments, agencies, and employees responsible for implementing laws and administering government programs.

What are independent agencies? List some examples.

Federal agencies outside the executive departments that have varying degrees of independence from presidential control. Examples include NASA, the FCC, and the FEC.

What is the Cabinet? List some examples.

The heads of the executive departments who advise the president. Examples include the Secretaries of State, Defense, Treasury, and Education.

What is the Executive Office of the President? List some examples.

Offices and advisers that directly help the president manage the executive branch. Examples include the White House Office, Office of Management and Budget, and National Security Council.

What is the order of courts that cases must move through before reaching the Supreme Court?

Federal district court → federal court of appeals → U.S. Supreme Court. Not every case reaches the Supreme Court, and some cases follow different paths.

What is jurisdiction?

A court's legal authority to hear and decide a case.

Why would cases go to the federal court system?

Because they involve the Constitution, federal laws, treaties, the federal government, or certain disputes between citizens of different states.

What is judicial review?

The power of courts to declare laws or government actions unconstitutional.

How did the Supreme Court give itself judicial review?

In Marbury v. Madison (1803), the Supreme Court declared part of a federal law unconstitutional, establishing judicial review.

What was Baker v. Carr?

A 1962 Supreme Court case that allowed federal courts to hear challenges to legislative district apportionment under the Equal Protection Clause.

Why is Baker v. Carr important?

It helped establish the principle of one person, one vote, requiring districts to have roughly equal populations.

What was Shaw v. Reno?

A 1993 Supreme Court case involving a congressional district drawn predominantly based on race. The Court ruled that racial gerrymandering could violate the Equal Protection Clause.

Why is Shaw v. Reno important?

It established that race-based districting can violate the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause.

What is amicus curiae?

"Friend of the court" — a person or group that is not directly involved in a case but provides information or arguments to help the court decide it.

What are independent agencies?

Federal agencies outside executive departments that have varying degrees of independence from presidential control.

What is the Rule of Four?

The Supreme Court practice requiring at least four justices to agree to hear a case.

What is administrative law?

Rules and regulations created by government agencies under authority delegated by Congress.

What is pork-barreling?

Directing government spending toward a legislator's district or state to benefit constituents.

What is congressional oversight?

Congress monitoring executive agencies through hearings, investigations, reports, and budget reviews.

What are executive agreements?

International agreements made by the president that do not require the Senate's two-thirds treaty-ratification vote.

What is stare decisis?

The principle that courts generally follow precedents established in earlier cases.

What is divided government?

A situation in which different political parties control the presidency and at least one chamber of Congress.

What is cloture?

A Senate procedure used to end debate. For most legislation, it generally requires 60 votes when all 100 Senate seats are filled.

What is a filibuster?

A Senate tactic used to delay or block action on legislation by extending or threatening to extend debate.

What is a writ of certiorari?

An order by the Supreme Court agreeing to review a lower court's decision.

What is participatory democracy?

A form of democracy emphasizing active citizen involvement in government through voting, protests, contacting officials, and attending public meetings.