Intro to Psych Exam 3

encoding

the process of taking information from the world, including our internal thoughts and feelings, and converting it to memories

storage

the maintenance of information in the brain for later access

retrieval

the process of bringing to mind previously encoded and stored information

Multistore model of memory

a model proposing that information flows from our senses through three storage levels in memory: sensory, short term, and long term

chunking

the process of grouping stimuli together in chunks in working memory to increase the amount of information stored in short term memory

rehearsal

the holding of information in the brain through mental repetition

Serial Position Curve

a curve that explains the primacy and recency effect

anterograde amnesia

the inability to transfer information from short-term to long-term memory, preventing new long-term memories from forming.

retrograde amnesia

A form of amnesia in which access to memories prior to brain damage is impaired, but the individual can store new experiences in long-term memory.

Levels of processing

The multiple levels at which encoding can occur, ranging from shallow to deep.

shallow encoding

Encoding based on sensory characteristics, such as how something looks or sounds.

deep encoding

Encoding based on an event’s meaning as well as connections between the new event and past experience.

Semantic encoding

Operates on the meaning of events (type of deep encoding)

Self-referential encoding

Encoding based on an event’s relation to our self-concept, which leads to enhanced memory for the event.

explicit memory

A form of memory that involves intentional and conscious remembering

implicit memory

A form of memory that occurs without intentional recollection or awareness and can be measured indirectly through the influence of prior learning on behavior

episodic memory

a type of long-term, explicit memory that allows you to recall personal experiences, including the time, place, and emotions associated with them

Semantic memory

is a form of long‑term declarative memory that stores general world knowledge

Retrospective memory

Memory for things we have done in the past.

Prospective memory

Memory for things we need to do in the future.

Consolidation

The process whereby memory storage is integrated and becomes stable in the brain. (happens during sleep)

Reconsolidation

the process in which a previously stored memory becomes temporarily unstable when recalled and is then re‑stored, often with possible changes.

Encoding specificity principle

The idea that retrieval is best when the present context recreates the context in which information was initially encoded.

State-dependent retrieval

The increased likelihood of remembering when a person is in the same mental state during both encoding and retrieval.

Mood-dependent retrieval

The increased likelihood of remembering when a person is in the same mood during both encoding and retrieval.

Context‑dependent retrieval

the improved recall of information when the external environment or contextual cues present at retrieval match those present during the original encoding of the memory.

Retroactive interference

The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.

Proactive interference

The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.

Trace decay theory of forgetting

If a person does not access and use a memory, the memory trace will

weaken or decay over time and will be less available for later retrieval

Interference theory of forgetting

Forgetting in long-term memory is related to interference created by integrating new and old information in the brain as time passes.

False memories

recollections of events that never happened or are remembered differently from reality, often formed through suggestion, misinformation, misattribution, or emotional influence

mental representation

An internal mental symbol that stands for some object, event, or state of affairs in the world.

concept

A mental category that groups similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

prototype

A best example or average member of a concept that incorporates most of the features most commonly associated with it.

Superordinate

most abstract example of something (Ex: Furniture)

Basic

categorically balanced, with clearly defined prototypes. (Ex: chair, bed, and sofa)

Subordinate

more specific prototype (Ex: office chair, dining chair, high chair, rocking chair)

insight

A sudden conscious change in a person's understanding of some situation or problem.

mental set

A mental framework for how to solve a problem based on prior experience with similar problems.

functional fixedness

An obstacle to problem solving that involves focusing on an object's typical functions, thus failing to recognize atypical functions that could help solve a problem.

trial and error

trying actions or strategies at random until a solution is found

heuristic

A mental shortcut that allows people to efficiently solve problems and make judgments and decisions.

representativeness heuristic

A mental shortcut for judging the likelihood of something based on how well it represents some category.

availability heuristic

A mental shortcut for deciding how frequent or probable something is based on how easily examples come to mind.

affect heuristic

A mental shortcut for making judgments and decisions that involves relying on affect—the good-for-me or bad-for-me feelings we associate with various objects and events in the world.

confirmation bias

The tendency to look for and weigh evidence that confirms preexisting beliefs more strongly than evidence that is inconsistent with those beliefs.

Belief perseverance

The tendency for people to resist changing their beliefs, even when faced with disconfirming evidence.

Hindsight bias

The tendency, once some outcome is known, to overestimate the likelihood that one would have predicted that outcome in advance.

fluid intelligence

A component of general intelligence that involves the ability to deal with new and unusual problems.

crystallized intelligence

A component of general intelligence that involves accumulated knowledge and skills.

Sternberg’s theory of intelligence

human intelligence consists of three components—analytical, creative, and practical—each arising from a corresponding subtheory: componential, experiential, and contextual.

Stereotype threat

A concern that one’s performance or behavior might confirm a negative stereotype about one’s group.

motives

A force that leads an individual to behave in a particular way.

instinct

A genetically endowed tendency to behave in a particular way.

drive

A state of internal bodily tension, such as hunger or thirst or the need for sleep.

Pain matrix

A distributed network of brain regions, including the amygdala, that respond to many types of pain.

intrinsically rewarding

Being pursued for its own sake. See also extrinsically rewarding.

extrinsically rewarding

Being pursued because of rewards that are not an inherent part of the activity or object. See also intrinsically rewarding.

glucostatic hypothesis

The hypothesis that hunger and eating are regulated by the body's monitoring and adjustment of blood glucose levels.

lipostatic hypothesis

The hypothesis that adipose tissue plays an important role in governing hunger and regulating longer-term energy balance.

Effects of loneliness

Increased risk of cardiovascular problems, Increased risk of early mortality, and the perception of being alone matters more than actual separation

Performance orientation

A motivational stance that focuses on performing well and looking smart.

Mastery orientation

A motivational stance that focuses on learning and improving.

Fixed mindset

People assume their abilities are fixed and unlikely to change in the future.

Growth mindset

People assume that their abilities can change and grow in response to new experiences or learning.

discrete emotions approach

An approach to analyzing emotions that focuses on specific emotions such as anger, fear, and pride.

dimensional approach

An approach to analyzing emotions that focuses on dimensions such as pleasantness and activation.

James–Lange theory

The theory that the subjective experience of emotion is the awareness of one's own bodily reactions in the presence of certain arousing stimuli.

Cannon–Bard theory

The theory that a stimulus elicits an emotion by triggering a particular response in the brain (in the thalamus), which then causes both the physiological changes associated with the emotion and the emotional experience itself.

Schachter–Singer theory

The theory that emotion arises from the interpretation of bodily responses in the context of situational cues.

Influences of Happiness

1.Happiness set point

2.Life circumstances

3.Intentional activities

self-control

The attempt to modify automatic or "default" responses in a particular situation.

willpower

The ability to engage in self-control.

strength model of ego control

According to this model, self-regulatory efforts draw on a finite pool of cognitive resources. Repeated self-regulatory demands may deplete these resources, leading to failures of self-control.

ego depletion

A state of diminished self-regulatory ability due to repeated demands on cognitive resources required for self-regulation.

emotion regulation

An attempt to modify one or more aspects of the emotion-response trajectory.

Situation Selection

putting yourself in places that make your emotions better

Situation Modification

modifying the situation to manage emotions

Attentional deployment

disassociation

Cognitive change

look at the bright side

Response modulation

overdo positive expression to suppress negative emotions