Unit 3: Land-Based Empires and Transnational Religious Transformations (1450–1750)

Devshirme System

An Ottoman administrative and military levy in which Christian boys from conquered Balkan territories were conscripted into imperial state service, converted to Islam, and educated for military or administrative roles.

Janissaries

An elite corps of Ottoman infantry soldiers trained through the devshirme system who cultivated absolute personal loyalty directly to the sultan.

Tax Farming

An Ottoman revenue-generation method where the state auctioned off regional tax collection rights to private bidders who paid an agreed sum in advance and extracted surplus wealth from local populations for profit.

Absolutism

A political doctrine asserting that total, undivided sovereign authority is vested entirely within the reigning monarch, free from institutional checks by aristocrats or legislative bodies.

Divine Right Theory

The theological-political doctrine asserting that God directly grants monarchs the divine mandate to rule, meaning resistance to the ruler constitutes rebellion against God.

Palace of Versailles

A monumental royal residence constructed by King Louis XIV of France that centralized state administration and required nobles to live on-site to neutralize their regional power bases.

Twelver Shia Islam (Safavid Empire)

The mandatory, exclusive official state religion enforced by the Safavids, requiring legitimate Islamic leaders to descend directly from the lineage of the Prophet Muhammad.

Akbar's Religious Policies

Measures promoting religious tolerance in the Mughal Empire, including the abolition of the jizya tax on non-Muslims, the appointment of Hindu elites to government office, and encouragement of interfaith dialogue.

Sale of Indulgences

The Catholic Church practice of issuing papally sanctioned certificates promising the remission of temporal punishment for sins in exchange for financial contributions.

Ninety-Five Theses

An itemized list of theological concerns and academic propositions authored by Martin Luther directly challenging papal authority and condemning the sale of indulgences.

Sola Fide

The core Lutheran theological tenet asserting that personal spiritual salvation is granted exclusively through internal divine faith rather than through sacramental deeds, good works, or monetary payments.

Sola Scriptura

The Protestant doctrine establishing that the Bible serves as the primary, supreme authority for faith and morals, superseding papal decrees and Church tradition.

Society of Jesus (Jesuits)

A Roman Catholic religious order founded during the Catholic Counter-Reformation dedicated to papal obedience, global missionary campaigns, and rigorous humanistic education.

Movable Type Printing Press

Johannes Gutenberg's mechanical innovation that drastically reduced the cost and time of book reproduction, accelerating the dissemination of Reformation