MIDEAST 200 - Exam 2

Class 13 ("Armenians) to Class 21 ("Ottomans")

What is the “Late Antquity” Period

Around 200-700 CE. Encapsulates the Sasanian Dynasty, UMMA period, and part of the Umayyad Caliphate.

Prior to the Armenian Empire, who are the dominant powers in the middle east?

The Sasanians (Persian Empire) (225-600 CE) in the east, and the Byzantine Empire (Romans) to the west.

• Armenia (as a state) is split between them, acting as a “buffer zone”

Sasanian Empire Period Time

225-650 CE.

Who led the Armenian conversion to Christianity and its significance?

Grigor the Illuminator in 301 CE. There’s a variety of religions in the region (mainly zoroastrianism, polytheism, etc.), and by NO means is this a linear process. Not everyone converts either.

Grigor the Illuminator

Secret christian who gets tortured by the king. However, as the king gets sick, Grigor prays for him and he miraculously recovers, prompting his and a mass conversion to Christianity in the region.

Battle of Avarayr / “War of Vardan” (451 CE)

Battle fought between the Sasanians and the Armenian Nobility / church, as they demand Armenians convert to Zoroastrianism. This led to the nobles revolting, and the Armenians getting decimated. However, they are allowed to continue practing christianity.

• Recorded by 5th century Armenian historian ‘Yeghishe’ as an eyewitness.

What is the importance of Yegihishe’s account of War of Vardan?

It isn’t just a straightforward binary account of christians vs non christians, instead it represents an attempt to reconcile disparate (fundementally different) worlds — trying to bridge new Christian identities with olderm foundational Iranian and traditional Armenian cultures past.

• Armenians have claim political loyalty to Sasanians, but draw the line at faith. They assure that they will be loyal, but they need to be allowed to be Christian and are willing to become Martyrs.

• It’s trying desperately to negotiate this cultural difference.

What do the Christians say to the Zoroastrian Persians?

We are on a moral high ground, we will not change our ways and if you force us we will “submit” and die. Idea that they are ready to submit (Martyr) stems from a biblical idea of earthy leaders are messengers of god, so if they have become leaders then saying no to them would essentially be saying no to god.

• They go into the war with a dual-sided sentiment. If they win… great! If they lose… great! We’re going to heaven and died as a christian martyr.

What aspect of the war lacked logic?

The Sasanians wanted Armenia as a “buffer” zone between them and the Romans… yet, they go to war to fight them and bring war to their doorstep.

Why was communication between them different, and almost comical, and how does this reflect larger beliefs about each other’s religions?

The Sasanians and Armenians shared letters which were often very nasty, instead of differences in culture, they literally call each other stupid and use language calling out how they’re “mentally unfit” and ideological differences in a surface-level way.

• Persians (Sasanians) believed christians aren’t elites.

• They have fundemental differences in battle, as they typically feel as though they should decimate their enemies and disagree with Armenian/Christian view of respecting your enemy (they “honor dishonorable more than honorable”)

Council of Chalcedon (451 CE) & Fracturing Christian Sects

The council is a universal council convened by the Roman emperor, which asserts the Dyophysite position that Christ has TWO distinct natures (divine and human), whereas the Armenian church (alongside other “eastern” churches) reject this idea for a Miaphysite position that Christ has ONE composite nature.

• Ultimately, this fallout leads to Armenia spliting with the Christian church in the west.

Historical Fallout of War

Armenians use this war as motivation and as identity in the future, as this prevents them from assimilating into the many cultures that take over their land. They maintain their identity through motivation of this war.

When “framing Islam,” how do we confront Orientalist legacies in academic work?

1. CHALLENGE: Modern academic work relies on objectifying and categorizing religion into rigid narratives (method which largely stems from orrientalism) which treated Islam as a monolithic (singular thing), static essence rather than a complex and living phenomenon still shaped today.

2. APPROACH: Take all diverse expressions of Islamic history seriously, recognizing that Islam has countless faces, objects, and narratives that shift across time.

What does Ahmed (modern scholar) argue about defining Islam in the pre-modern context?

When looking at Islam, we should not separate culture and religion as they were intertwined, and rather, we should simply define the term as an ongoing and changing engagement with the core proposition that “there is no God but God, and Muhhammad is the Messenger of God.” Cannot box it into one single narrative.

What are the three main regions of the Arabian Peninsula and the geographical significance?

1. Najd and Syrian Deserts (the “Middle and North” of Arabia) — Abundant with mobile pastoralist (tribal groups that herd lifestock) confederations which are very hard to control by larger empries.

2. al-Hijaz (“the barrier”) — Filled with trade and pilgrammage centers going N-S, E-W, as well as many oasis towns.

3. Yemen — Prone to monsoon rains, good for farming. Local kingdoms rule.

Historical Context: “Land of the Arabs” (850-550 BCE)

Towns ruled by women, connected to major trade settlements and routes making them a source of camels and luxury goods. They worshipped a variety of deities and were deeply connected with Ancient Israel & Damascus.

Historical Context: “Ancient North Arabian” — Ancestors of Arabic (1st Century CE)

Ancient North Arabian describes a family of languages that gave rise to Old Arabic, then Arabic, in multiple scripts.

• Rock inscriptions showed aspects of religious practices which were reflective of the Land of the Arabs.

• Worship of many deities, shrines in sacred places (Harams), sacred pilgrimage months & ritual purification (foreshadows future major practices)

What changes in religion in the 5th and 6th centuries?

Allah becomes the sole deity of worship. Reflects a switch of centuries of polytheism to early-Arabic monotheism. No defined official religion yet, however.

• New forms of expression: piety (expressions in text reflecting devotion and obedience to god), asking for blessing, seeking forgiveness.

Politically, what is going on to the North of Arabia during this time? (Romans vs Sasanians)

1. Devestating proxy wars break out in Armenia, Syria, and Yemen (which is very south… interesting) (541-628, with occasional 10 yr breaks in between).

2. Hardening of imperial religious orthodoxies — many state churches break off from Rome as they strictly define their practices/beliefs (ex. Armenia), leading to religion’s use more frequently as an ideological weapon and boundary in collaboration with geopolitical, economic, and territorial dominance.

3. Overall, heavy tax burdens, plague, and wars (everywhere!) lead to intense social instability (“apocalyptic thinking”) — motivating religious reform.

The Christian Ascetic Movement

Rise of individuals who practice severe self-discipline such as absentation from worldy pleasures like wealth or social status. Reflected in core ideas of rejection of state oversight (avoiding laws, politics, and entanglement of Roman imperial structure), withdrawal from the world (living in isolation) — giving way to solo practitioners like Simeon the Stylite. This spread throughout the eastern Mediterranean.

• Lead to organized monasteries, which are communal residential centers where ascetics lived together under a shared rule, moving away from isolated solitude. Prayed as a collective, and therefore differed from the ideas of solo practitioners. (Ex. St. Anthony of Egypt)

The God-Fearer Phenomenon

Rise of individuals or groups worshipping a supreme deity with only loose adherence to monotheistic concepts without a formal conversion to Judaism or Christianity.

• Incorporate a variety of practices and local traditions, and avoid rigid doctrinal frameworks or ritual systems of defined religion.

• Example — Pagan Monotheists

Arab Kingdoms — Christian Buffer States separating Romans/Sasanians to Arabia

1. Jafanids — Christian client state of the Romans just south of the Byzantine empire (Modern day Syria)

2. Nasrids — (Likely) Christian client state of the Sasanians (Modern day Southern Iraq), destroyed in 602 during the war. Intresting b/c Sasanians are Zoroastrian.. not christian.

Kingdom of Himyar (Yemen)

Unifies southern Arabia in 300, and Judaism is the official state religion by 380. Significant regional power, and allied with the Sasanians.
- Clashes with local christian groups, mainly the neighboring Aksum.

Kingdom of Aksum

Christian kingdom allied with the Romans in their wars with Persia, conquers Himyar in 525 CE.

• Invaded the city of Mecca in 570 “Year of the Elephant” which is held by tradition to be the birth-year of the Prophet.

Trend of Monotheism

Judaism in the north and Yemen (Aksum), Christianity in the Yemen, Syria, Iraq (Himyar, Romans, Armenians), Zoroastrianism (Sasanians, Himyar), Hanifs (devotees of a single deity following the god-fearing model).

• Reflects the apocalyptic expectations of the time, evidenced by the collapse of the Nasrids (north) and Himyar (south), which was prophesized by preachers in Arabia.

• Older religious practices still remain, as old deities have a subordinate position as angels or intercessors of their new religion, and sacraficial practices on cult stones are still prevalent.

• Important to note that we may see some of these trends as a seperation of religion and secularism, but actually, AT THIS TIME, is NOT the case. The gods were involved in all aspects of life, even if their religion wasn’t always defined.

Foreshadowing the Qur’an: We can assume…

• Audience of the Qur’an is familiar with monotheism and biblical tradition

• Most worship a supreme creator-deity in various ways, with a blend of modern and ancient tradition

• Qur’an will be concerned with reforming the many “imperfect” forms on monotheism which include correcting wrong belief (denial of resurrection), ending association of divine attributes to other entities, and following proper practice.

Mecca

An important commerical and religious center with a Haram (the Ka’ba), the city and sanctuary are managed by the tribe Quraysh.

Origin of Muhammad’s Belief

Born in 570 CE “Year of the Elephant,” was orphaned at 6 yrs. Drawn to the hanif ideal, he practiced in solitary meditation in a cave near Mecca. Here, he recieved his first revelation in 610.

What are the themes of early chapters of the Qur’an?

1. Powerful warnings about the end of days and the Last Judgement

2. Shift to form a rigorous and purified monotheistic community

3. Jihad: An internal and an external struggle. Importance on an obligation to form and expand this community in the world. Wide range of options given to approach this.

4. Hijra: Emphasis on the Emigration

The Hijra (“Emigration”) - 622 CE (1 AH)

Muhammad begins to preach in Mecca, gains followers, but faces harassment and persecution from Quraysh elites. Major emigration to Medina/Yathrib.

• Yathrib delegates accept Muhammad’s prophecy and invite him to emigrate there as their new intertribal arbiter. Hence, the emigration to Yathrib (now Medina — “The City of the Prophet”)

• Important to note that Medina had both Jewish and Non-Jewish tribes.

• Formation of Medina as a state.

The Umma & Forming a new state in Medina

The new community (umma) formed by this alliance of the Emigrants, Helpers, and the Jewish tribes of Medina.

• Emigrants: the Prophet’s Meccan followers

• Helpers: the people of Medina who assist the Emigrants

The Umma Document

Sets up a inter-tribal political structure with rules for mediation and interaction. “Believers” (main audience of the Qur’an) and “Submitters” (those who have offered submission in some way, but aren’t fully practicing) are expressed in the opening statement. “Those who follow and attach themselves to them” may refer to Jewish tribes, who would also then still be included in the Umma.

• This early community was still in the process of becoming itself, and it may have been more porous and fluid than we might think today.

• They didn’t call themselves a specific term. Believers, muslims, and emigrants were among the most popular. Those who strive and give help for the sake of God/religion were included.

• “Arab” was NOT included in the umma document as a label for groups, only as a linguistic term.

• A clear distinction is drawn between belief and submission, however. “Belief” also appears 10x more frequently. However, “belief” is also vague and only emphasizes a monothestic creator God and last day of judgement.

Christians within the Umma

Some earliest followers of Muhammad were Christian, so even if they weren’t explicitly mentioned in the Umma document (we don’t really know), they are accounted for in general among the emigrants.

• There was a very small amount of Christians in the region though, and they were not really mentioned in writing.

• Speaks to the accomdation factor of the believers — everyone included were general monotheists and only had differences in how they practiced, and overall there were a wide range of perspectives among the followers.

When is the Umma Period?

622 CE - 661 CE.

Building the Umma Coalition

Tribes at Medina can keep their existing organization, but they need to resolve existing disputes in a way that is acceptable to the Believers as a collective.

• Most of these tribes have integrated Jewish members… so what about the Jews?

Jews within the Umma

A repeating theme of mutual help/assistance is prominent, as well as the practice of keeping previously-existing groups intact.

• Important to note that “Jews” and “Muslims” are distinct sub-groups within the community (umma) of the believers.

Summarizing the Umma

The Umma document accommodates various groups. Tribal & religious identities are not abolished, Jews are included and their identity is accepted, and “Arab” is NOT used as a group name.

• Suggests that the Umma accommodated “believers” from various religious backgrounds and affiliations.

• A distinct “islamic” identity is still forming.

• Changes begin to occur as we go into the Umayyad Period

Umma into Geopolitics

Through the concept of the Umma (community), the Prophet Muhammad forged a “super-tribe” that unites much of the Arabian peninsula. Mecca falls to Medina in 630.

• Raises the question, when Muhammad dies, what next? He passes in November 632.

What were characteristics of the first four leaders following Muhammad?

They all assumed the title of “Commander of the Believers.” All were close associates of Muhammad from different branches of the Quraysh, and were each selected by different means.

1. Abu Bakr (632-34)

2. Umar (634-644)

3. Uthman (644-656)

4. Ali (656-661)

Abu Bakr (632-34) & the Ridda Wars (632-33)

Nominated by Umar in Medina, was a very early follower and father in law of Muhammad.

• Ridda Wars: Many tribes (many led by their own prophets) rebel or refused to pay taxes following the death. Acted as an important “training ground” for the new army, and the Arabian Peninsula was unified for the first time under a single state.

• Impacts: Doctrine of Muhammad as the seal of the prophets to invalidate rival prophets. Zakat (religious tax) worked into communal practice. Development of Jihad into a series of continuous short raids (leading to open-ended expansion)

Umar (634-644)

Appointed by Abu Bakr, launched successful campaigns against the Romans, Sasanians, and Egypt.

• Important Policies: Established a calendar, central treasury to pay soldiers, and the FOUNDING OF GARRISON TOWNS.

Garrison Towns (Umar, Umma Period)

Founded near but outside major cities to house governing elites and have a military outpost to keep an eye on the outside.

• Let people be, just collect taxes from them. Highly lucrative, also driven by ethos (this is the right thing to do).

• Qur’an reciters dispatched to each garrison town, but there was no evidence of forced conversion or violence. Communities would keep their own laws and leaders, but they are subordinate to the state and pay taxes.

• Fustat, Basra, and Kufa among major towns established during this time.

Founded adjacent to most major urban centers, and some became major cities of their own; sites where the emigrant tribes kept apart from local populations but also mixed with each other, helping cultivate a sense of shared Arabness.

Anatomy of Garrison Towns

A rectangular, walled structure with tribal quarters within each quarter, a mosque in the middle, and a HQ. Very similar to Romans, as it was very organized and disciplined.

Mawla

The client. Captives integrated into the household as “clients” of the tribe. A form of kinship that tied the person to the family.

• Clients were often non-believers or slaves that were overseen by the Garrison towns, and had a subordinate status.

• They were given protection in favor for submission essentially.

Forms of Subordinate Status

1. The “Protected Peoples” - Status given to Jews and Christians with the protection of life and property for a tax. Excluded from all privilages, duties, and taxes of Umma members.

2. Mother of Child - Captive mothers granted a few rights following the captor’s death.

3. The Mawla

Overall, they offer a service in exchange for protection.

What were the two main clans for the Quraysh, and what happens after Umar?

The Hashim — Contained Muhammad!

The Umayya — Contains the Banu Umayya and the Umayyad Caliphs

• Umar is assassinated in 644 by a Persian client (Mawla) due to tax policies.

• Uthman elected as new Commander of the Faithful by council of 6 men appointed by Umar (Ali AGAIN passed over for leadership)

• Still trend of completely different ways of gaining power.

Uthman (644-656)

Autonomous conquests continue into rural, less wealthy areas which makes expansion a lot more expensive. Standardization of the Qur’an included getting rid of local texts (of which the locals each believed were “right”) which creates more fracturing, and overall rising tensions within the state.

• Less income with more soldiers to pay and longer distances to manage.

• Overall leads to rebellion by Garrison towns over dissatisfaction leading to his death in Medina (656 CE)

What happens after Uthman’s death?

Ali claims leadership, and the Umma splits into factions. This leads to all out Civil War (657-660 CE) and the eventual death of Ali in 661. MORE ABOUT THE CIVIL WAR IN LATER SLIDES!! The following takes a look at the Umayyads who win and establish a new capital at Damascus.

• Ali and his followers — including helpers and clients

• The Umayyads (Uthman’s Family)

• Meccan Quraysh (original tribe, including prophet’s widow A’isha)

When is the Umayyad Caliphate?

661 (death of Ali) - 750 CE.

Who are the Umayyads?

Originally apart of the Meccan elite before Islam, part of the Quraysh, then they become late converts of Islam.

• Close relatives of Uthman (3rd commander of the Believers after Muhammad)

• Fought against Ali and became the ruling dynasty after his death

What is a Caliph?

From the Umayyad title khalīfat Allāh (“God’s deputy”), used by the dynasty to assert their right to lead the entire community.

How did the Umayyads reunite the Umma after civil war?

Reunified the state around a clearly formulated identity.

How did the Umayyads administer such a vast territory?

Present the Umayyads as the only legitimate Islamic rulers.

How to interact with an overwhelmingly non-Muslim population?

Establisher firmer boundaries between Muslims and “people of the Book” (Christians and Jews) — i.e. at Dome of the Rock.

What were the major reforms of Abd al-Malik (685-705)?

Organized a standing army, established arabic as the language of administration, coinage reform, and Dome of the Rock.

The Process to Language Reform (696)

Before the late 600’s, the new state conducted business in established languages Greek and Pahlavi (middle Persian).

• Around 696, Abd al-Malik makes Arabic the new language of administration.

• Similar idea around the prestige of Hellenism — if Roman and Persian bureaucrats wanted to remain involed, they needed to “Arabize” somewhat, which also guarantees that Arabic-speakers will have access to high positions.

Coinage Reform

Abd al-Malik starts minting new coins with the “double shahada” (declaration of faith): “There is no god but God, and Muhammad is the messenger of God.” Similar design to Roman prototype, however. Establishes new identity, straying away from nearly greek copycats to their own. Continuity in establishing a new era with art and coinage changes,

• By the end of the reform, Umayyad coins have a distinctive new look. NO IMAGES, ALL ARABIC TEXT, EMPHASIS ON MUHAMMAD’S PROPHECY, QUR'ANIC PASSAGES

Dome of the Rock (691)

Built by Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik at Jerusalem, and is still the oldest surviving work of Islamic architecture. The inscriptions are significant as the oldest were made by the Believers/early Muslims and are notable for extensive citations of the Qur’an. An octagonal building based on the floor plan of a late antique Christian martyrium, but with inscriptions clearly intended to make a statement about Islam as a practice distinct from Christianity and Judaism.

• Mainly Christians were the main audience for these inscriptions to push back against their beliefs, especially as the Christians were the imperial neighbors and intellectual rivals to them at the time.

• Significant to the course as it reflects stricter defintions and boundaries of religion as we continue in the Umayyad period.

• Strong emphasis on Muhammad as apostle and prophet, Qur’anic citations disputing the doctrine of the Trinity, prophet and scripture are elevated as symbols of distinct religion, and sponsored collections of the Hadith (sayings of the Prophet) are part of the same effort.

Umayyads as Islamic Rulers

1. Rulers assume the title “God’s Deputy,” not just “Commander of the Believers” like the first four (pre-Civil War).

2. Religious Judges are appointed in provinces to oversee Islamic norms.

3. HAJJ: Umayyad caliphs lead Muslims on the annual pilgrimage to Mecca.

4. Elaboration on Islamic practice (five prayers, Friday sermon, etc.).

Arabian Peninsula before Islam

There was no clear communal identity as “Arabs” (think abt Umma Document and how it wasn’t used as a term) via ethnicity, culture, or language.

• Arab was used mostly for non-sedentary groups.

Evolving Sense of “Arabness” and an Identity

Members of diverse tribes lived together in Garrison towns, shared a privileged status in the new state (military, administrative, landowners), religious identity (Islam), and language (Arabic). Arabness develops through a shared identity based on common origins and traditions, eventually becoming a prominent idea in the Calpihate by late 7th century.

• This is a GRADUAL and COMPLEX process to the formation of the binary Arabs vs Non-Arabs.

A Hierarchy Emerges

Under the Umayyads, “Arabs” (the large intertribal confederation) control all the important administrative and military positions. They have a monopoly on power.

• Non-tribal converts are integrated into tribal units as clients (mawla), however they continue to pay a tax levied on non-Muslims, thus they were NOT incorporated under equal footing, as despite CONVERTING TO ISLAM, they still had to pay the tax.

• This begins a growing idelogical tension. This unequal power structure turns into “Arab” exceptionalism (all political and social privlege falls under Arab lineage) vs pietistic egalitarianism (Islamic principle that all believers are spiritually equal before god).

• In other words, their religion in theory says they should all be equal, but the Umayyad leadership is power hungry and greedy and established an unfair hierarchy, creating fracturing both internally and geopolitically (externally).

True or False: Umayyad elite interacted and were inspired by Byzantine and Sasanian traditions and culture.

TRUE! An example of this is the Umayyad desert castles, which were elite recreational centers situated far from the main cities and were beautifully decorated.

Umayyad Main Idea #1 - “Arab Leaders”

Formation of communal Arab identity (“arabness”), inequality between arabs and non arab Muslims expressed in the state structure and the Mawla client system.

• “Arab” is a ethnic and linguistic identity, different from “Muslim” which is a religious identity. There is often overlap, but very different ideas.

Umayyad Main Idea #2 - Islamic Caliphs ("Deputies of God”)

Formation of the Muslim identity and the conception of a caliph. Development of the religious tradition and practices with an emphasis on the Prophet Muhammad.

Umayyad Main Idea #3 - Emperors

Adoption of the Byzantine and Sasanian systems of state administration and their improvement. Interaction with Roman and Persian ideas about kingship, as well as a cultural and architectual legacy.

The Reality of the Umma Document

It should be read as a treaty. Aspirational. Not a witness of what actually happened.

• Signs of internal frictions were visible early on, especially after the Prophet’s death (think Ridda Wars, and the Civil War!)

Back to the Commander of the Belivers - Why was Ali (656-661) Important?

He was Muhammad’s cousin, so he was the closest fit as male next-of-kin. He was raised in the prophet’s household and was his first male follower.

• Ali’s supporters see the election of Uthman as a betrayal and declare Ali as the new leader after Uthman’s murder in 656.

Who were the major inputs in the First Civil War (656)?

1. Quaraysh of Mecca — Seek to reclaim prior dominance. Led by A’isha (daughter of Abu Bakr and Prophet’s Widow)

2. Alids (Shi‘at ‘Ali) (party of Ali) — Assert Ali’s right to leadership. Supported by helpers of medina, Garrison towns in Iraq, and early marginalized converts.

3. Umayyads (Uthman’s family) — Demand vengeance for Uthman’s death, power base in Syria led by Mu’awiya.

Prophet’s son in law vs the Prophet’s Widow/Wife — leaves an emotional scar on the community as a whole.

Battle of Siffin (657) and the split of the Alids

Mu’awiya (Umayyad leader) and Ali meet, and the Umayyads are on the verge of defeat. Ali is prepared to accept their surrender and negotiate. However, some of Ali’s troops see this as a betrayal of principle and cut ties — forming the “Kharijities.”

• Ali gets assasinated by a Kharijite in 661, allowing Umayyads to consolidate power.

Bias of the term “Kharijite”

Means “those who exit,” but the term was also coined by people who didn’t like them. The group in reference didn’t call themselves Kharijite.

The Next Generation

Ali’s sons (Muhammad’s Grandscons) Hasan and Husayn settle in the Hijaz after the civil war, and Hasan dies in 670.

• When Umayyad leader Mu’awiya dies in 680, his son demands Husayn’s allegiance, and doesn’t get it.

The death of Husayn at Karbala (680)

Husayn was invited by the people of Kufa to join them as their leader, but was intercepted by the Umayyads on the way.

• The men were killed and all women/children taken captive. This led to widespread outrage and anger ensuing.

• Resentment, as it doesn’t even make sense that supposed followers of the prophet will kill and hold captive the prophet’s grandson?

Imam

Spiritual leader endowed with special knowledge.

Mahdi

Rightly-guided one who will restore justice.

Multiple anti-Umayyad revolts follow

1. Kaysanis: declare another of Ali’s children as their imam and mahdi

2. Zaydis: led by Husayn’s grandson Zayd

Both revolts were quickly put down by the Umayyads. Except for one…

Who are the Abbasaids?

Descendants of the Prophet’s uncle, al-Abbas — not directly descened from Ali, but fron the Hashim clan.

• Around 100 AH (intentional) (718 CE) they plug into anti-Umayyad opposition and sent agents to Syria, Iraq, and especially Khurasan.

Characteristics of Khurasan

Distant from Umayyad power in Syria, with a cohabitation of Arab colonists and Iranian local popualtion including some ex-Sasanian nobility. Large amount of Mawla that were subject to heavy taxation.

• Heavy taxes, large mawla population, frustration with exclusion from the empire and community, and anger over Karbala (Husayn) lead to a perfect brew of a group against the Umayyads ready to revolt.

The New Hijra (Emigration)

A mawla of the Abbasaid family is dispatched to Khurasan, assembles coalition of Iranian mawali, children of Arab settlers, and local military elites and marches west with black banners (symbol of mourning for Husayn).

• Successfully defeats Umayyad army in 749 and proclaims a new caliphate.

• One branch of the Umayyad family escapes to Spain, but everyone else is annihilated.

Features of the early Abbasid State

1. Persian elements in administration and protocol. Incorporated Iranian Muslims (mawla) into the government, and had the rise of the chief minister as a significant post.

2. Sasanian models of city design

3. Innovation in visual arts, paper, literary and intellectual efflorescence

4. Translation Movement

True or False: Abbasid presentation of kingship used pious titles and honorifics that were reminiscent of Sasanian kingship.

TRUE! Titles like “The one guided by God” showed divine appointment to bring justice, prosperity, and good religion which was also used by Sasanians.

• Claimed to usher in a new turn or era “dawla” of history.

• Establishes a new capital Baghdad (“City of Peace”) in 762. Circular walls inspired from Sasanian design.

When was the Abbasif caliphate?

750-950.

What was the translation movement?

Mass translation of Greek, Syriac, and Middle Persian works into Arabic.

Explosion of Book Culture

Paper was introduced around 750 CE, which overtakes parchment and papyrus.

• Lead to development in poetry and rhetoric, history and ethics, medicine and philisophy, and law.

Context to how Abbasids viewed “difference”

1. Arabic now established as an international language, dominating over greek, middle persian, and aramaic.

2. Umayyads previously elevated Arabness to display an elite and conquer status, and establish Islam as an “Arab faith”

3. This Umayyad system breaks down under the Abbasids, as many Iraqis begin to self-identify local, profession, affiliation, or other ethnicities while still using Arabic as a shared language.

The Shu’ubiya debates

As Umayyad idea falls, there are many challengers to Arab exceptionalism (the idea that Arabness = Prestige). Debates over claims to nobility and prestige as the Islamic empire transitioned under the Abbasids into a multi-ethnic society.

• Culture Wars — which heritage holds the most worth?

• Shows how difference is made during this time. Still not on modern racial categories, rather, these debates use a Qur’anic principle and biblical genealogy, as well as class dynamic approach instead.

• Emphasis on class - “riffraff” vs “nobles.” They view noble people across groups share the same genealogy.