psych of lang test 2

What is phonology?

Phonology is the study of how sounds are organized, represented, and used in a particular language. It examines the sound system and the rules that determine how sounds can be combined.

What is phonological universality?

Phonological universality refers to the similarities shared by all human languages in how they organize speech sounds.

What is phonological diversity?

Phonological diversity refers to the differences between languages in the sounds they use and the ways they combine those sounds.

What are the two aspects of phonological diversity?

1. Diversity of building blocks: Languages use different sets of sounds (phonemes). 2. Diversity of combinations: Languages have different rules about how sounds can be combined into syllables and words.

What is a phoneme?

A phoneme is the smallest sound unit in a language that can distinguish one word from another. For example, /b/ and /p/ distinguish bat from pat.

Are two different sounds always represented as different phonemes?

No. Two sounds can be physically different but belong to the same phoneme if they do not change the meaning of a word. They may be allophones of the same phoneme.

What is an allophone?

An allophone is a variation of a phoneme that does not change the meaning of a word. For example, the /t/ sounds in tan and stan are different pronunciations of the same English phoneme /t/.

What determines whether two sounds are different phonemes or allophones of one phoneme?

If replacing one sound with another changes a word's meaning, they are different phonemes. If the sounds do not change meaning and occur in predictable environments, they are usually allophones.

What is a minimal pair?

A minimal pair consists of two words that differ by only one sound and have different meanings. Example: bat and pat. Minimal pairs demonstrate that two sounds are separate phonemes.

What are distinctive features?

Distinctive features are the individual characteristics that describe speech sounds and help distinguish one phoneme from another. Examples include voicing, place of articulation, and manner of articulation.

What is voicing?

Voicing refers to whether the vocal cords vibrate when producing a sound. /b/ is voiced, while /p/ is voiceless.

What is aspiration?

Aspiration is a puff of air released when producing certain consonants. In English, /p/, /t/, and /k/ are typically aspirated at the beginning of a stressed syllable.

What is place of articulation?

Place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract a speech sound is produced. Examples include bilabial (both lips), alveolar (tongue near the ridge behind the teeth), and velar (back of the tongue near the soft palate).

What is manner of articulation?

Manner of articulation describes how airflow is restricted or shaped when producing a speech sound. Examples include stops, fricatives, and nasals.

What is the difference between consonants and vowels?

Consonants are produced with some restriction or obstruction of airflow in the vocal tract. Vowels are produced with relatively open airflow and usually form the center (nucleus) of a syllable.

What is the difference between the /t/ sound in tan and stan?

The /t/ in tan is aspirated (released with a noticeable puff of air), while the /t/ in stan is unaspirated (produced with little or no puff of air).

Are the /t/ sounds in tan and stan different phonemes?

No. They are allophones of the same phoneme /t/ in English because the difference in aspiration does not change the meaning of the word.

Why is the /t/ in tan aspirated but the /t/ in stan unaspirated?

In English, /t/ is generally aspirated at the beginning of a stressed syllable but unaspirated after /s/ in a consonant cluster.

What is the difference between a phoneme and an allophone?

A phoneme is a sound category that can distinguish meaning. An allophone is a variation in how that phoneme is pronounced that does not change meaning.

What is phonotactics?

Phonotactics refers to the rules of a language that determine which combinations of sounds are allowed and where they can occur in a syllable or word.

What is a syllable?

A syllable is a unit of spoken language organized around a central vowel or other syllabic nucleus. It can contain an onset, a nucleus, and a coda.

What are the three main constituents of a syllable?

1. Onset: Consonant(s) before the vowel. 2. Nucleus: The central part, usually a vowel. 3. Coda: Consonant(s) after the vowel.

What is the onset of a syllable?

The onset consists of the consonant sounds that come before the nucleus. Example: /k/ in cat.

What is the nucleus of a syllable?

The nucleus is the central and usually most sonorous part of a syllable. It is usually a vowel. Example: /æ/ in cat.

What is the coda of a syllable?

The coda consists of the consonant sounds that come after the nucleus. Example: /t/ in cat.

What is the rhyme of a syllable?

The rhyme is the combination of the nucleus and the coda. In cat, /æt/ is the rhyme.

What is an example of a syllable with an onset, nucleus, and coda?

Cat: /k/ = onset, /æ/ = nucleus, /t/ = coda.

What is expletive infixation?

Expletive infixation occurs when a swear word is inserted into the middle of another word, usually at a syllable boundary. Example: fan-freaking-tastic.

What is the evidence provided by expletive infixation?

Swear words are inserted at specific syllable boundaries rather than randomly between sounds. This suggests that speakers mentally organize words into syllables.

How does expletive infixation support the role of syllables?

It demonstrates that syllables are meaningful units in language production because speakers use syllable boundaries to determine where sounds or words can be inserted.

What does it mean that syllables are abstract?

Syllables are mental or cognitive units that speakers use to organize speech. They are not simply physical divisions of sounds.

How do language perception and production provide evidence that syllables are abstract?

Speakers perceive and produce speech in syllable-based patterns. Their responses show sensitivity to syllable boundaries even when those boundaries are not physically obvious.

How do speakers of different languages respond differently to syllable structure?

Speakers are influenced by the syllable patterns and sound combinations allowed in their native language. They may perceive or organize unfamiliar sound sequences differently based on their language experience.

Why are syllables considered mental representations?

Because speakers use syllable structure to organize, perceive, and produce speech, even when syllable boundaries are not directly marked in the physical speech signal.

How do Japanese speakers pronounce Big Mac?

They typically adapt it to Japanese phonology as "Biggu Makku" (ビッグマック), using vowel sounds and consonant patterns that fit Japanese syllable structure.

Why do Japanese speakers change the pronunciation of English words?

Japanese has different phonotactic rules from English. Japanese does not generally allow the same consonant combinations or word-final consonants that English allows, so speakers adapt unfamiliar words.

What syllable types are allowed in Japanese?

Japanese primarily uses simple syllable patterns such as CV (consonant + vowel) and V (vowel alone). It also allows a moraic nasal and a special geminate consonant, but most consonants cannot occur freely at the end of a syllable.

What does CV mean in syllable structure?

CV stands for consonant-vowel. It is a common Japanese syllable pattern, such as /ka/.

What is a consonant cluster?

A consonant cluster is two or more consonants occurring next to each other without an intervening vowel. Example: /st/ in stop.

Why are English consonant clusters difficult for Japanese speakers?

Japanese generally does not allow the same consonant clusters that English allows, so speakers may insert vowels to make the pronunciation fit Japanese phonological rules.

What is repair in phonology?

Repair is a process in which speakers modify an unfamiliar or prohibited sound pattern to make it fit the phonological rules of their native language. Examples include inserting vowels or changing sounds.

What is vowel epenthesis?

Vowel epenthesis is a repair strategy in which a vowel is inserted into a word to break up an impermissible consonant cluster or avoid a prohibited consonant ending.

Does repair affect the perception of syllable structure?

Yes. Native-language phonological rules can influence how people perceive unfamiliar sound sequences. Speakers may mentally organize sounds into syllable patterns that are familiar in their language.

Can Japanese speakers perceive other speech contrasts?

Yes. Japanese speakers can perceive many speech contrasts that are not part of their native language, but experience with their first language can make certain unfamiliar contrasts harder to distinguish.

Why might Japanese speakers have difficulty distinguishing some English sounds?

Their native language may not use the same sound contrasts as English. Without regular exposure, they may perceive two different sounds as belonging to one familiar sound category.

What does linguistic experience demonstrate about syllabification?

Language experience influences how people organize and interpret speech. Speakers learn the syllable structures and sound patterns of their native language.

What is Optimality Theory (OT)?

Optimality Theory is a theory of phonology that explains how languages use universal grammatical constraints but rank those constraints differently.

What are the goals of Optimality Theory?

To explain both the similarities and differences between languages by showing how universal constraints interact and how different rankings create different sound patterns.

How does grammar work in Optimality Theory?

The grammar evaluates possible pronunciations (candidates) using a set of constraints. The candidate that best satisfies the highest-ranked constraints is selected as the optimal output.

What are constraints in Optimality Theory?

Constraints are universal grammatical principles that determine which sound patterns are preferred or prohibited in a language.

What are the two main types of constraints in Optimality Theory?

1. Markedness constraints: Favor simple or preferred sound structures and discourage certain sound combinations. 2. Faithfulness constraints: Require the output to preserve the sounds and structure of the original input.

What is a markedness constraint?

A constraint that discourages certain sound patterns, such as complex consonant clusters or consonants at the ends of syllables.

What is a faithfulness constraint?

A constraint that encourages the pronunciation to remain faithful to the original sounds, preventing deletion, insertion, or changing of sounds.

How does Optimality Theory explain repair in Japanese?

Japanese ranks its markedness constraints against complex consonant clusters and prohibited syllable endings higher than faithfulness constraints. As a result, Japanese speakers may insert vowels to make unfamiliar words fit Japanese syllable patterns.

How does Japanese grammar result in repair?

When an English word contains a consonant cluster or prohibited final consonant, Japanese grammar favors a pronunciation that avoids that structure. A vowel may be inserted, even though this changes the original pronunciation.

What happens when markedness constraints are ranked higher than faithfulness constraints?

The language may modify the original word to avoid prohibited sound structures, even if it means inserting, deleting, or changing sounds.

How does English grammar differ from Japanese grammar in Optimality Theory?

English allows more complex consonant clusters and consonants at the ends of syllables. Its grammar ranks the relevant markedness constraints lower than Japanese does, allowing it to preserve more of the original consonant structure.

What is the difference between English and Japanese phonotactics?

English allows complex syllable structures, including consonant clusters and many final consonants. Japanese generally favors simpler consonant-vowel structures and has stricter restrictions on consonant combinations.

How does Optimality Theory explain the tension between language diversity and universality?

All languages share the same universal constraints, but they rank those constraints differently. Different rankings produce different phonological systems.

What is universal to all languages according to Optimality Theory?

The set of possible phonological constraints is universal and shared across languages.

Why do languages differ according to Optimality Theory?

Languages differ because they rank universal constraints differently, causing different sound combinations and pronunciation patterns.

How does Optimality Theory explain the diversity of languages?

It explains language diversity through different rankings of universal phonological constraints. Each language prioritizes certain sound patterns over others.

What aspects of grammar are universal in Optimality Theory?

The constraints themselves are universal. Languages share the same basic set of constraints but rank them differently.

What is the relationship between universality and diversity in phonology?

Universality means languages share common phonological principles, while diversity results from the different ways languages rank and apply those principles.

What is the syllable hierarchy?

The syllable hierarchy refers to the preferred organization of sounds within syllables based partly on sonority. Sounds tend to increase in sonority toward the nucleus and decrease in sonority away from it.

What is sonority?

Sonority is the relative loudness or resonance of a speech sound. Vowels generally have the highest sonority, while stops generally have the lowest.

What is the typical sonority hierarchy from highest to lowest?

Vowels > glides > liquids > nasals > fricatives > stops.

What are examples of vowels in the sonority hierarchy?

/a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, and /u/. Vowels generally have the highest sonority.

What are glides?

Glides are sounds that are produced with little obstruction of airflow and function somewhat like consonants. Examples include /w/ and /j/ (the y sound in yes).

What are liquids?

Liquids are consonants such as /l/ and /r/. They have relatively high sonority compared with nasals and obstruents.

What are nasals?

Nasals are consonants produced by allowing air to pass through the nose. Examples include /m/, /n/, and /ŋ/.

What are fricatives?

Fricatives are consonants produced by forcing air through a narrow opening, creating friction. Examples include /f/, /s/, and /ʃ/.

What are stops?

Stops are consonants produced by completely blocking airflow and then releasing it. Examples include /p/, /t/, and /k/.

What is sonority distance?

Sonority distance is the difference in sonority between two sounds. It describes how much sonority changes when moving from one sound to another.

How does sonority explain the syllable hierarchy?

Sonority generally rises as sounds move toward the vowel nucleus and falls as sounds move away from it. This creates a sonority peak at the center of the syllable.

What is the Sonority Sequencing Principle (SSP)?

The Sonority Sequencing Principle states that sonority should generally increase toward the nucleus of a syllable and decrease after the nucleus.

What is the sonority pattern of a typical syllable?

Sonority rises through the onset, reaches its highest point at the vowel nucleus, and falls through the coda.

What is an example of sonority rising in an onset?

In the word play, /p/ is a stop with low sonority and /l/ is a liquid with higher sonority. Sonority increases as the sounds approach the vowel.

What is an example of sonority falling in a coda?

In the word tent, sonority decreases from the vowel nucleus toward the final consonants.

What is a sonority peak?

The sonority peak is the most sonorous point in a syllable, usually the vowel nucleus.

What are statistical tendencies associated with the syllable hierarchy across languages?

Languages tend to prefer syllables with a single vowel nucleus, simpler consonant clusters, and sonority patterns that rise toward the nucleus and fall away from it. CV syllables are especially common.

What are statistical tendencies associated with the syllable hierarchy within a given language?

Within a language, consonant combinations that follow the sonority hierarchy tend to be more common and acceptable than combinations that violate it.

Why are some consonant clusters more common than others?

Consonant clusters that follow the preferred sonority pattern are generally more common. For example, a stop followed by a liquid in an onset is generally preferred over a liquid followed by a stop.

Why is a stop followed by a liquid a common onset pattern?

A stop has lower sonority than a liquid, so sonority rises toward the vowel nucleus. This follows the Sonority Sequencing Principle.

What does the syllable hierarchy suggest about universal phonology?

Although languages differ in their specific syllable rules, they tend to share general preferences for how sounds are organized based on sonority.

How does Optimality Theory explain differences between languages in syllable structure?

Different languages rank markedness and faithfulness constraints differently. Some languages allow complex consonant clusters, while others favor simpler syllables.

How does Optimality Theory explain universality in syllable structure?

All languages share universal phonological constraints and preferences, including tendencies related to sonority and syllable organization.

Why do languages have different syllable structures if phonological constraints are universal?

Because languages rank the universal constraints differently. A structure that is acceptable in one language may violate a highly ranked constraint in another.

What is the main takeaway from phonological universals?

Languages are different, but their sound systems are not completely random. They share universal patterns and preferences, while individual languages differ in how they apply them.

What is the difference between phonology and phonetics?

Phonology studies how sounds function and are organized in a language. Phonetics studies the physical production, transmission, and perception of speech sounds.

What is the difference between phonemes and syllables?

Phonemes are individual sound units that can distinguish meaning. Syllables are larger units that organize sounds around a nucleus.

What is the difference between phonotactics and phonology?

Phonology is the broader study of a language's sound system. Phonotactics specifically concerns the rules for combining sounds.

What is the difference between markedness and faithfulness?

Markedness favors certain sound structures and discourages others. Faithfulness favors preserving the original sounds of a word.

What is the difference between universality and diversity?

Universality refers to shared patterns across languages. Diversity refers to the differences in sound inventories and sound-combination rules.

What is the difference between an onset and a coda?

The onset comes before the vowel nucleus. The coda comes after the vowel nucleus.

What is the difference between an aspirated and unaspirated consonant?

An aspirated consonant is produced with a noticeable puff of air. An unaspirated consonant is produced with little or no puff of air.

What is the most important idea behind the syllable hierarchy?

Sounds generally become more sonorous as they approach the vowel nucleus and less sonorous as they move away from it.

What is the most important idea behind Optimality Theory?

Languages share universal constraints but differ because they rank those constraints differently.