Learning and Memory Study Guide Exam One

What is the Simple Systems Approach? General Process Approach? Behavioral Approach?

The Simple Systems Approach uses a simplified version of a complex system to help understand the more complex system. The General Process Approach argues that at some fundamental level, there are universal mechanisms of learning. The Behavioral Approach focuses on learning and behavior, highlighting the importance of studying behavior using scientific approaches.

How did Darwin’s ideas of natural selection imply about the “search for the animal mind?”

Darwin’s history of evolution shows that humans and animals share a common evolutionary history. The study of animal behavior could help us understand the origins of the human mind and behavior.

What did Thorndike do? What were his 2 major OBSERVATIONS, and 2 major CONCLUSIONS based on each observation

Thorndike observed that the learning curve’s slope is gradual; due to this observation, he concluded that learning is simple and automatic. He also observed that the shape of the curve is the same across many different species, which led him to conclude that the learning process works the same way for different species.

Describe how the shape of “learning curves” would be different if learning by trial and error vs. learning by insight. Explain the logic of why the learning curves would have different shapes according to each learning view.

Trial-and-error learning would produce a steadily improving slope before leveling out because the learner consumes knowledge from experience and accumulates knowledge over repeated attempts. Insight learning would produce a sudden jump in performance because the learner would automatically out of nowhere understand the concept, causing a rapid increase in performance.

What is the Law of Effect? According to Thorndike, what is it that gets learned when learning occurs?

The law of effect states that responses become attached to the stimulus situation in which they occur. Thorndike claims that learning is an S-R bond; the strength of the bond between the stimulus and response is either strengthened or weakened by the outcome.

What is Morgan’s Cannon and what does it have to do with drawing inferences about the mechanisms underlying behavior?

Morgan’s Cannon is the principle of parsimony, or, the simplest explanation is usually the best place to start. It is essential for establishing theories about the mechanisms underlying behavior because it prevents over-interpretation of behavior using higher-level mental processes.

Define “learning” – identify and discuss central elements of your definition.

Learning is an enduring change in mechanisms of behavior involving specific stimuli and/or responses that results from prior experience with those or similar stimuli or responses. A change in behavior is necessary to infer learning has occurred but does not actually mean something is learning. It is all about the change in the MECHANISM of the behavior.

Are learning and performance the same thing? Explain why and provide an example to clarify.

Learning and performance are different because it is possible to learn without a change in performance. For example, you can study and learn content for an exam but perform poorly on the exam due to factors like nerves or lack of the proper context cues.

What are Modal Action Patterns? Broadly considered, what do they suggest about mechanisms of complex behavior?

Modal action patterns are multiple reflexes strung together. MAPs suggest that even quite elaborate, purposeful-looking behavior can arise from simple reflexes. This emphasizes the use of Morgan’s Cannon in the study of human behavior, starting from simple explanations.

Discuss how Dual-Process Theory of Habituation and Sensitization would explain habituation and sensitization.

The Dual-Process Theory of Habituation and Sensitization claims that these two processes occur at the same time in the brain, and whichever process is stronger is the response. If habituation is stronger, then the response decreases; if sensitization nets positive, then the subject’s response will increase.

Is habituation stimulus specific? Is sensitization stimulus specific? Provide examples to illustrate.

Habituation is stimulus specific because the decrease in response is due to the one stimulus you are habituated to. For example, you can habituate to a clock ticking but still attend to the lecture occurring at the same time. Sensitization is not stimulus specific because exposure to one strong stimulus increases responses to other stimuli. For example, after watching a horror movie you will be more aware of your surroundings in general.

What is dishabituation; what are different ways it can be produced?

Dishabituation is the recovery of a previously habituated behavior produced by a change in either the nature of the stimulus, the temporal context, or the addition of a novel stimulus.

What does dishabituation suggest about possible causes of habituation?

Dishabituation suggests that habituation is not caused by muscle fatigue or receptor adaptation because a change in the stimulus can restore the original response. This proves that habituation is caused by a change in the central nervous system not by sensory adaptation or muscle fatigue.

What is spontaneous recovery?

Spontaneous recovery occurs when, after habituating to a stimulus, the stimulus is removed for a period of time and then reintroduced, resulting in only a partial recovery of the previously habituated response.

What is the “Standard Pattern of Affective Dynamics”? Describe different components of the standard pattern in detail

The “Standard Pattern of Affective Dynamics” is a predictable series of emotional responses when an emotion-provoking event is presented and then removed. For example, if someone gets a new car, they will initially be very excited (primary emotion). If they shortly afterwards crash the car, then they will be sad (opponent emotion). However, if someone has had the same car for their entire life, they have habituated to the primary emotion of excitement. As a result, when they crash it, their opponent emotion of sadness will be much stronger than it would have been when the primary emotion was not yet habituated.

How is the standard pattern different before versus after habituation of the primary emotional reaction. Explain the standard pattern before vs. after habituation in terms of underlying mechanisms according to Opponent-Process Theory of Motivation.

The standard pattern of affective dynamics shows a much larger opponent emotion and a longer recovery period after habituation of the primary emotion compared to an emotion that has not been habituated to. According to the Opponent-Process Theory of Motivation, there are two parallel neural processes. The A-process is the cause of the primary emotion, while the B-process is the cause of the opponent emotion. In the case of habituation, both the A- and B-processes turn on at the same time with high peaks. When the A-process is turned off, the B-process is the only one still running, which causes a greater opponent emotion and a longer recovery period.

How would Opponent-Process Theory explain addiction? Tolerance?

Opponent-process theory explains addiction by labeling the initial “high” as the a-process and the withdrawal as the b-process. As the a-process becomes habituated, the b-process becomes stronger; the reason addicts continue to take drugs is not to seek the primary emotion or the high but to avoid the b-process or the withdrawal. Tolerance is explained in this theory through the fact that it takes more of the drug to reach that initial primary emotion because of the paralleled b-process and the habituation of the a-process.

What is autoshaping? Provide an example

Autoshaping is a form of Classical Conditioning in which an animal develops a behavior toward a stimulus that predicts a reward, even though the behavior is not required to receive the reward. When a pigeon is put into a box with a food dispenser that turns on a light a few seconds before dispensing food, the pigeon will peck at the light before getting the food even though that’s not necessary to get the treat.

Discuss findings from autoshaping suggesting that classical conditioning is a “powerful” kind of learning?

Autoshaping suggests that Classical Conditioning is a powerful and automatic kind of learning by showing that animals will develop a conditioned response to a stimulus that predicts an important event, even when their response has no effect on whether the event occurs.

Generate 2 human examples of classical conditioning that were not presented in class. Specify the CS, US, UR, CR.

When meditating, I listen to a recording of a Tamboura. If I hear the Tamboura music in a non-meditative context, it automatically calms me down. In this story, meditation is the unconditioned stimulus that makes me calm–the unconditioned response. The conditioned stimulus is the Tamboura music that I have paired with meditation. Now the feeling of calm becomes a conditioned response when I hear tamboura music.

Explain how Pavlov’s research extended Descartes’ conceptualization of the role reflexes have in human behavior. (aka, overall, what is one key reason why Pavlov’s discovery of classical conditioning was/is important)

While Descartes claimed that all reflexes are innate and not plastic, Pavlov’s research is important because he showed that human behavior can change depending on what is learned. Pavlov’s discovery of classical conditioning shows that learning can change automatic behaviors; not all responses are innate like Descartes claimed. 

Describe assumptions of Pavlov’s ‘stimulus substitution’ view and experiments that support. vs. do not support this view

Pavlov’s stimulus substitution view states that learning is the formation of a new neural connection between the US and the CS. He claims that the UR occurs because the US activates the innate US to UR pathway. His last claim is that the CR occurs because the CS activates the same US to UR pathway. This all allows for the CS to produce the same response as the US. Experiments that support this view are the original dog salivation experiments and the baby pigeons tapping for food. An experiment that does not support this view is Siegel’s drug tolerance model because it shows that the CR acts to compensate for the upcoming drug, running in the exact opposite direction of the UR.

Be able to explain the logic of why a finding supports versus does not support the stimulus substitution model.

The stimulus substitution model claims that learning is a new neural connection between the CScenter and the UScenter, that a UR response occurs due to the activation of the innate US to UR pathway, and that a CS can activate that same pathway if associated with the US. If the study finds that the CR and the UR are not the same then it does not fit the stimulus substitution model.

What is a key prediction of Pavlov’s Stimulus Substitution view about response topography (form of behavior) of the CR and UR. Explain the logic of why the Stimulus Substitution view makes that prediction

A key prediction is that the conditioned response (CR) should have a similar form or topography to the unconditioned response (UR) because the CS is thought to substitute for the US.

Consider Siegel’s Compensatory Response Hypothesis (classical conditioning mechanism for drug tolerance in humans). Explain what tolerance is according to this model. Your explanation should specify what is the CS, US, CR, and UR.

Siegel’s Compensatory Response Model of Drug Tolerance suggests that tolerance can be minimized by using the drug in a novel environment because tolerance is partly built from the environmental cues that trigger compensatory responses. The US is the drug and the UR is the physiological effect of the drug. The CS is the environmental cues associated with taking the drug. The CR is a compensatory response that occurs after the repeated pairing of the CS and US that counteracts the drug’s effect and lowering the overall effect and raising tolerance.

According to Siegel’s Compensatory Response Model of Drug tolerance what could you do to minimize the effects of tolerance?

To minimize the effects of tolerance according to Siegel’s compensatory response model of drug tolerance, one could always consume the drug in a new or novel environment so that the compensatory CR would never kick in to lower the effect of the drug.

Explain why what you chose would help, according to model assumptions.

In a novel environment, those familiar CSs are absent, so the compensatory CR is weaker or does not occur. Therefore, the drug’s usual physiological effect (UR) would be less opposed, resulting in a stronger drug effect.

What is Evaluative Conditioning? Provide an example clarifying how Classical Conditioning can change ‘hedonic value’.

Evaluative conditioning shows that classical conditioning can change the hedonic value, or how much we like or dislike something. For example, if a baby initially dislikes green-bean food (US) because it tastes unpleasant (UR), repeatedly pairing green-bean food with a liked food such as sweet potato (CS) could increase the baby’s liking of green beans. The previously disliked food takes on a more positive hedonic value through its association with the liked stimulus.

Describe the difference between S-S learning versus S-R learning in first-order classical conditioning. For each view, answer “What is it that gets learned?” in classical conditioning. Be able to explain how & why that content of learning is acquired within each view during actual pairings of the CS and US.

SS learning is that what is learned is the relationship between the CS and US. The CS becomes associated with the US, which later, when the CS is presented it invokes a memory of the US, which activates the UR. Under this theory, preventing the UR does not prevent learning because the bond is between the two stimuli.

SR learning is that what is learned is the relationship between the CS and UR. The CS becomes directly associated with the UR. This claims that you would not need to activate a memory of the US to elicit a UR. If the UR is presented during training, then learning would not occur because the bond is between the CS and UR.

Describe experiments and findings from “US devaluation” and “US Inflation” research (US Revaluation / Post-conditioning modification of US Value). What do findings from this research suggest about S-S versus S-R learning hypotheses?

US devaluation and inflation involve modifying the memory of the US after classical conditioning has already occurred. The strength of the association doesn’t change, only the nature of the emotion elicited. 

A research study done on US devaluation involved two phases of conditioning and two study groups. The first phase of conditioning was the same for both groups: a tone was paired with a taste. Then in the control group for phase two, nothing was paired but in the study group the taste was paired with a toxic chemical that made the rats feel sick. Then when the two groups were tested by hearing the tone, the CR activity was stronger in the rats that did not receive the toxin in phase two. 

Clearly explain the logic of what would be predicted by each view from these experiments, as well as, the logic of why the actual outcome supported one view over the other

This proves the S-S hypothesis because the memory of the US is part of what gets learned and if that memory is made less favorable it should change the magnitude of the CR. If S-R learning were correct we would observe no difference in CRs between the two groups.

What’s the difference between Interstimulus Interval and Intertrial Interval in classical conditioning methodology?

The interstimulus interval is the amount of time where the CS is experienced before the onset of the US. The intertrial interval is the amount of time after the US of one trial and the onset of the CS of another trial.

What is “pseudoconditioning”? Provide an example of Pseudoconditioning & How could you might control for it.

This is when a response looks like a CR but is actually caused by sensitization. This is fixed by establishing an appropriate control group.

How can fear produced through classical conditioning be reduced?

Fear produced through classical conditioning can be reduced through exposure therapies. Exposure therapies involve pairing the CS with no US repetitively to unlearn the connection between the CS and danger or fear.

Name and describe different types of Conditioned Inhibition. Be able to generate examples that have NOT been discussed in class.

Pavlovian Conditioning Inhibition involves adding a stimulus that predicts the absence of the US. For example, if you’re at grandma’s house and she gives you candy every time you’re over except when you’re accompanied by your parents, your parents are a conditioned inhibitor of you getting the candy.

Differential conditioning inhibition occurs when one stimulus predicts the US while a different stimulus predicts the absence of the US. For example, traffic lights, green always means go, and red always means stop so the red light is an inhibitory stimulus for going.

What are the “laws of association”? What is the goal in trying to identify the laws of association?

Laws of association are factors that affect classical conditioning such as contiguity, CS:US order, similarity, contrast, frequency, and intensity. The goal of identifying these laws in order to predict what is likely to be associated and how strongly based off of the traits of the stimuli. 

I have developed an intense phobia of the duck billed platypus. Develop an example which led to this phobia via second-order classical conditioning. Clearly indicate in your example what is CS1, CS2, US, UR, CR.

When you were a little kid you were bitten(US) by a Chihuahua (CS1). While you were watching phineas and ferb you saw pinky(a chihuahua) and Perry the platypus in an episode together. This created an association with pinky (CS1) and Perry (CS2) now whenever you see a duck billed platypus you become scared (CR).

Rework your example above so my phobia was produced by Sensory Preconditioning. Know the difference between the two.

It is true that this phobia could have been learned through sensory preconditioning instead of second-order classical conditioning. In this case, you watched the episode of Phineas and Ferb long before you were bitten by the chihuahua. In this case the two neutral stimuli were paired before any US-CS association was made.

What is “CS-US relevance”? Why does it suggest the associative learning process is “selective”.?

CS–US relevance refers to the fact that some CS–US pairings are easier to associate than others because of their biological relevance. This suggests associative learning is selective because organisms are predisposed to learn certain associations more readily than others.

Is there evidence for biological preparedness in humans? Describe.

There is plenty of evidence for biological preparedness in humans. For example, it is more likely that humans will show a greater galvanic skin response when shown natural threats such as fire or snakes compared to man made threats such as guns. Even if the participants say that they think the level of danger is the same between the two threats, they are biologically prepared to be more responsive to threats of our ancestors.

What is: CS preexposure effect? US preexposure effect?

CS preexposure and US preexposure both involve experiencing one component of the association alone before conditioning, which makes subsequent CS–US learning slower.

Discuss ways in which the study of Learning has contributed to Neuroscience. Provide a specific example. Much more important that you construct one well developed example (even if simply stated but fleshed out), rather than trying throw in everything possibly relevant. Doing the latter is likely to weaken your meaning.

The study of learning has contributed to the study of the brain by applying theories developed through psychological and behavioral studies to the structure and processes of the brain. For example CS-US relevance shows that some stimuli are more easily and biologically adpated to be associated than others. If the brain processed information through a general process approach then all CS and US associations would be equal but it shown through many studies that organisms are biologically prepared to make some associations compared to others. This led neuroscientists away from the general-process approach and closer to the modularity of mind hypothesis that the brain contains specialized modules.