COM 202 Ch.6 Study Guide

Language is Symbolic

• In the natural world, signs have a direct connection with things they represent Ex: Smoke is a sign that something in burning

• In language, the connection between signs and the things they represent are not as direct

• Instead, language is symbolic meaning there is only an arbitrary connection between words and the ideas or things to which they refer

• Ex: Five refers to the number 5. We can show this by using our fingers, in French the symbol cinq would convey the same meaning

More on Symbolic Language

• It enables us to communicate in ways that wouldn’t otherwise be possible about ideas, reasons, the past, etc.

• Without symbolic language, none of this would be possible

• If everyone used symbols in the same way, the language would be must easier to understand and manage

• The indirect relationship between symbols and the things they represent can lead to communication problems

• Ex: You tell a hairstylists to “take a little of the top” and you figure out that her definition of little is your definition of a lot

• Misunderstandings like these remind us that meanings are in people, not in words

• Because meaning is in people and not words, that also means that words can literally change meaning based on how others use them

Understanding and Misunderstanding

• Language is much like plumbing: we pay the most attention to it when something goes wrong

• Problems from misunderstandings are often unapparent and occur more than we think

• Misunderstandings are the greatest cause of concern for people who study language

Different ways to Understand Words

• Semantic Rules

• Equivocation

• Relative Language

• Static Evaluation

• Abstraction

Semantic rules

• Semantic rules reflect the ways in which users of language assign meaning to a particular word

• Semantic rules are what make it possible for us to agree that bikes are for riding and markers are for drawing

• Without semantic rules, communication would be impossible because everyone would use symbols in unique ways and without shared meaning

• Semantic misunderstandings arise when people assign different meanings to the same words

Equivocation

• Equivocal statements can be interpreted in more than one way

• Ex: That tattoo is really unusual

• Sometimes we use equivocal language without realizing that ambiguous statements can have more than one meaning

• Ex: 20 year friendship ends at alter

• Equivocal statements can be embarrassing, troubling

• The responsibility for interpreting statements accurately rests in large part with the receiver (feedback and paraphrasing are helpful)

Relative Language

• Relative words gain their meaning by comparison Ex: Do you attend a large or small school?

• The answer to the question depends on what we compare it to

• Relative words such as fast, slow, smart, stupid, short, and tall are clearly defined only through comparison

• Some relative terms are so common that we mistakenly assume they have a clear meaning Ex: Using the word “likely”

• One way to make words more measurable is to turn them into number Ex: Pain scale from 1 to 10

• The same technique can be used when asking people to rate things such as movies, job satisfaction, etc.

Static Evaluation

• Ex: “Mark is a nervous guy” “Mia is short-tempered”

• Statements that contain or imply the word is lead to the mistaken assumption that people are consistent and unchanging

• This is an incorrect belief is known as a static evaluation

• It would be more accurate to point out specific situations in which Mark has acted nervous

• Bottom line: We are more changeable than the way state, everyday language describes us

Abstraction

• When it comes to describing problems, goals, and requests, some language is more specific than others

• The abstraction ladder illustrates how the same phenomenon can be described at various levels of specificity in abstraction

• Ex: Abstract language: You need to have a better attitude. Specific Language: You need to complain less about working overtime on weekends

• Abstractions can be a useful kind of verbal shorthand Ex: Thanks for cleaning up

• Highly abstract language can lead to blanket judgements and stereotyping Ex: Men are no good

• Overly abstract expressions like these can cause people to think in generalities, ignorning uniqueness.

Abstract vs Behavioral language

• Abstract language is vague in nature

• Behavioral language refers to specific things that people say or do

• Ex: “You are lazy and never help out” vs “I noticed the kitchen dishes were left in the sink overnight two times this week”

Understanding Structure: Syntactic Rules

• Syntactic rules govern the grammar of a language in terms of word order and how words are placed together to create meaning

• Although we can’t describe the syntactic rules that our culture uses, it is easy to tell when the rules have been violated

• Ex: Yoda '“The dark side are they”

• Linguistics believe it is important to view dialects as different rather than deficient forms of English

Understanding Context: Pragmatic Rules

• Semantic and syntactic problems don’t account for all misunderstandings- context plays an important role

• Ex: Boss telling his young female assistant “you look really pretty today”

• When two people bring two different perspectives when interpreting a message, problems occur

• Pragmatic rules govern the way our speech operates in everyday interaction and help us interpret messages in a given context

• These rules can not be found in a dictionary, instead they are unstated but they are just as important as semantic and syntactic rules

Pragmatic Rules Continued

• Coordination is the term scholars use to describe the way conversation operates when everyone involved uses the same set of pragmatic rules

• Some pragmatic rules are shared by most people in a culture

• Ex: “How’s it going” in North America really doesn’t request a lot of information

• People in individual relationships also create their own sets of pragmatic rules

• Ex: Using offensive nicknames and jokes around friends

• Just keep in mind that those who are not in that relationship are likely to misunderstand you and your communication style

The Impact of Language

• Language is more than just a medium for helping communicators understand one another

• Language can shape our perceptions of the world around us and reflect the attitudes we hold toward one another

Naming and Identity

• Research shows that names are more than just a simple means of identification

• Names shape the way others think of us, how we view ourselves, and the way we act

• Names are one way to shape and reinforce a child’s personal identity

• Name choice can also be a powerful way to make a statement about cultural identity

• What makes a name and its spelling unusual changes with time

Affiliation

• Speech can also build and demonstrate solidarity with others

• Research shows that communicators are attracted to those whose speaking style is similar to theirs

• Also, communicators who want to show their affiliation with one another adapt their speech in a variety of ways (vocab, rate of talking, etc) this process is called speech accommodation

• Ex: Street slang, adopting patterns

• Speech accommodation is a form of convergence

Convergence

• Convergence- The process of adapting one’s speech style to match that of others

• Ex: Mutual romantic interests use similar language styles which enhances the chances of the relationship continuing by almost 50%

• When two or more people feel equally positive towards about one another, their linguistic convergence will be mutual

• Communicators often adapt their speech to accommodate to another person’s style when they want or need approval

• Ex: Employees who want a raise tend to speak more like their bosses

Divergence

• The principle of speech accommodation works in reverse too

• Communicators who want to set themselves apart from others adopt the strategy of divergence

• Divergence is speaking in a way that emphasizes their differences from others

• Communicators must be careful about when and when not to converge their language with others

• One of the pragmatic goals of divergence is the creation of norms about who has the “right” to use certain words and who does not

Power and Politeness

• There are several language patterns that have the ability to add or detract from a speaker’s power to influence others (Confidence vs polite)

• Research shows that people whose speech are free of powerless speech mannerisms are rated more competent, dynamic, and attractive than speakers who sound powerless

• Even a single type of powerless speech mannerism can make a person appear less authoritative or socially attractive

Powerless Speech Mannerisms

• Hedges Ex: “I think we should…” “I guess I’d like to…”

• Hesitations Ex: “Well, we could try this idea..".”

• Intensifiers Ex: “I’m really glad to see you.”

• Polite forms Ex: “Excuse me, sir …”

• Tag questions Ex: “Don’t you think we should give it another try?”

• Disclaimer Ex: “I probably shouldn’t say this but…”

• Rising Inflections

Disclaimer

• A disclaimer is a type of powerless speech that attempts to distance a speaker from remarks that might be unwelcome

• Ex: I don’t mean to sound judgmental, but…”

• Studies show that disclaimers actually increase negative judgements

• Disclaimers involving negative qualities (such as laziness and selfishness) produced similar results

• It seems that disclaimers backfire because they sensitize listeners to look for and find precisely the qualities that the speaker is trying to disavow

Politeness

• Some scholars question the label “powerless” because tentative and indirect speech styles can sometimes achieve goals better than more assertive approaches

• Less forceful approaches can be attempts at politeness: communicating in ways that save face for both senders and receivers

• It is valued in some cultures more than others

• Even in cultures that value assertiveness, language that is too powerful may intimidate or annoy others

• In some situations, polite and less powerful forms of speech can even enhance a speaker’s effectiveness

• Remember, interpersonal competence is a balance between effectiveness and appropriateness- it is important to find the balance

Language, Culture, and Identity

• Trying to translate the same idea form one language to another is not easy

• Translation is important, especially in a technology-enhanced global marketplace where cross-cultural communication is more common

• Even choosing the right words during translation does not guarantee that non-native speakers will use the unfamiliar language correctly

• Translation is only a small part of the differences in communication between members of different cultures

Culture and Verbal Communication Styles

• Using language is more than just choosing a particular group of words to convey an idea

• Each language has its own unique style that distinguishes it from others

• When a communicator tries to use the verbal style form one culture in a different one, problems are likely to arise

Ways in which Languages Differ from one Culture to Another

• Vary in Directness- Low context vs high context culture

• Vary in being elaborate or succinct- Ex: Arabians typically use language that is richer and more expressive. Note that succinctness is most extreme in cultures where silence is valued

• Vary in formality and informality- Formality is more about defining social position than it is correcting grammar. There are different degrees of formality when talking to complete strangers or old friends

Low Context Culture vs Low Context Culture

• Low context cultures value using language, thoughts, feelings, and ideas as directly as possible.

• They look for the meaning of a statement in the words that are spoken

• Ex: North American Cultures

• In contrast, high context cultures value using language to maintain social harmony

• Instead of being upset by others speaking directly, high-context communicators learn to discover meaning from the context in which the message is delivered

• Ex: Asian and Middle Eastern cultures

Gendered Aspects of Language

• The results of several studies show that the language differences between men and women are remarkably similar

Ways women and men have similar language

• Conversation Topics- Studies show that people choose topic of conversation based on gender (Men- discuss music, events, sports. Women- family, relationship problems, clothing. Both- Work, movies, and television

• Reasons for Communicating- Men focus more on making conversations fun. Conversations are something they like. Women tend to discuss feelings, relationships, and personal problems. For women, these conversations are something that they needed

• Conversational Style- Men’s speech is characteristically more direct, succinct, and task oriented. Women’s speech is typically more indirect, elaborate, and focused on relationships

• Non-gender Variables- Research shows that the ways women and men communicate are more similar than different. Things like social philosophy, occupation, and competitive orientations plays a bigger role than gender

• Gendered Pronouns- Those who are not referred to by their correctly gendered pronouns, either intentionally or unintentionally, they are misgendered. This can lead to frustration and sadness

Using Language Responsibility in Interaction

• The language we use reflects our willingness as speakers to take responsibility for our beliefs and feelings

• Your willingness to accept or reject responsibility says a great deal about you and can shape the tone of a relationship

Using “I” Statements

• You can modify your language to take ownership of your thoughts, opinions, and feelings by embracing “I” language

• This includes avoiding “it” “but” and “you” statements

• It clearly identifies the speaker as the source of a message

• This language shows the speaker takes responsibility to the complaint Ex: I don’t like when you tell off-color jokes in front of my parents”

• Even the best constructed and delivered “I” message won’t always succeed

• Beware, because these statements can sound egotistical- so use it in moderation

Using “It” Statements

• As the name implies, it statements replace the personal pronoun I with the less immediate word it.

• Communicators who use “it” statements avoid responsibility for ownership of a message, attributing it instead to some unidentified source

• This habit isn’t just imprecise, it is an unconscious way to avoid taking a position

“But” Statements

• The word “but” cancels out everything that precedes it

• This is often a strategy for wrapping the speaker’s real but unpleasant message between more palatable ideas in a psychological sandwich

• This is a face-saving language that can oftentimes work

• However, sometimes the most responsible approach is to deliver the positive and negative messages separately so that both get heard

“You” Language

• Expresses a judgement of the other person

• “You look great today” is a positive judgement, but notice how other times the statement following “you” statements shows a complaint of the person doing wrong Ex: You left this place a mess

• A “you” statement implies that the speaker is qualified to judge the target and it often results in defensiveness

“We” Language

• It implies the issue is the concern and responsibility of both the speaker and the receiver of the message

• It can build a constructive climate and reflects the transational nature of communication

• They signal their closeness, commonality, and cohesiveness with others

• They are however, not always appropriate- it can suggest that you are speaking for the other person as well as yoruself

• Using both “we” and “I” statemets is the way to go

Using Inclusive Language

• Another important aspect of language and your ability to connect with others is its inclusivity

• As people continue to become more aware of how diverse cultures are, it is important to consider how language can be used as a tool for including and welcoming others

• It can also be used to minimize hurting people who we interact with in social and personal relationships

Inclusive vs Exclusive language

• Inclusive language is language that tends to include people based on its use

• This type of language can create a sense of community for everyone that it refers to in conversation

• Exclusive language is the use of words or phrases that intentionally or unintentionally prevent the inclusion of people

• It can bring even those that are not being specifically marginalized by its use down as they can feel anxiety, tension, or offense when offensive language is used

How to ensure that your language is inclusive

• Try and use words or phrases that are open to including the widest variety of people Ex: “Hey guys!”

• Think about history and politics and how they relate to the words you are using

• Avoid using exclusive language that is passive-aggressive