Gov Unit 2

24-hour news cycle

Continuous cable news begun by CNN in 1980, creating demand for content and ratings-driven tabloid culture.

501(c)(3) organization

Tax-deductible nonprofit for educational/charitable purposes; prohibited from political activity like lobbying or independent expenditures.

501(c)(4) organization

Social welfare group that can engage in political activity (under 50%) and raise unlimited dark money without donor disclosure.

501(c)(5) and (c)(6) groups

Labor (c5) and business (c6) associations; politically active within limits, but donations are not tax-deductible.

527 group

Tax-exempt group formed to influence elections without explicit advocacy ("vote for"); must disclose donors to IRS.

Abernathy v. Sullivan

Supreme Court case decided together with New York Times Co. v. Sullivan.

Access

Lobbyist advantage gained through strong ties to members of Congress, often as former members or staff.

Actual malice

Libel standard for public figures: making a statement with knowledge of falsity or reckless disregard for truth.

Agenda setting

Media power to selectively highlight specific events, shaping public perceptions of what issues are important.

Aggregated polling

Averaging results across multiple polls, weighted by past pollster accuracy, to increase predictive accuracy.

American Tradition Partnership v. Bullock

Supreme Court ruling that reversed Montana's corporate spending ban, extending Citizens United to state elections.

Amicus brief

"Friend of the court" brief filed by a non-party; a major litigation tactic used by interest groups.

Associated Press / Reuters

Wire services that employ reporters to cover and sell news stories to local outlets via telegraph/digital networks.

Ballot initiative

State-level electoral measure that interest groups advance or oppose to pass policy directly through voters.

Base voters

Core partisan voters who require turnout mobilization rather than persuasion during campaigns.

Biden's Spoils System

Refers to the practice of appointing major campaign donors to ambassadorial positions.

Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA, 2002)

Law that banned party soft money, regulated electioneering communications, and required "Stand By Your Ad" disclosures.

Brutus 1

Anti-Federalist essay arguing that a vast republic would dissolve liberty and state sovereignty.

Buckley v. Valeo (1976)

Ruling establishing that campaign contributions can be limited to prevent corruption, but spending cannot be capped.

Cable Act of 1992

Law aiming to foster cable viewpoint diversity, market competition, consumer protection, and growth capacity.

Cable Communications Policy Act of 1984

Established federal, state, and local regulatory jurisdiction over cable ownership, rates, and channel usage.

Citizens United v. FEC (2010)

Ruling that corporations and unions can spend unlimited funds on independent political expenditures.

Civil Service Act (Pendleton Act, 1883)

Replaced the spoils system with merit-based civil service hiring after President Garfield's assassination.

Class action lawsuit

Lawsuit filed on behalf of a large group of people; used by interest groups as a litigation strategy.

Confidence level

Statistical certainty (typically 95%) that repeated identical surveys will fall within the margin of error.

Consolidation (Media)

Trend of media ownership concentrating into fewer corporations (e.g., 50 companies in 1983 to 6 in 2011).

Correlation vs. Causation in Campaign Spending

Top spenders usually win, but spending money does not necessarily cause the election outcome.

Dark money

Political spending by 501(c) nonprofits (especially 501(c)(4)s) that are not required to disclose donors.

Dean's Scream

2004 Iowa caucus moment replayed 633 times in 4 days, demonstrating ratings-driven negative media amplification.

DISCLOSE Act of 2022

Proposed law requiring super PACs and 501(c)(4)s to promptly report donors giving $10,000 or more.

Donor-based interest group

Organization funded by donors relying on staff researchers rather than mass membership (e.g., Children's Defense Fund).

Economic interest groups

Organizations representing business interests, labor unions, and professional trade associations.

Political efficacy

A citizen's belief that their political participation and vote actually make a difference.

Electioneering

Direct interest group involvement in electoral process by funding candidates and mobilizing voters.

Electioneering communications

Broadcast ads mentioning a candidate near election dates, target audience 50k+, regulated under BCRA.

Elitism / Elite theory

Theory that real political power is concentrated among a wealthy upper class and dominant corporate interest groups.

Entrance / exit polls

Surveys conducted at polling sites on Election Day to analyze demographic turnout and project winners.

Equal Time rule

FCC rule requiring broadcast stations to afford equal coverage opportunities to opposing political candidates.

Fairness Doctrine

1949 FCC policy requiring broadcasters to cover controversial topics fairly; abolished in 1987.

Federal Communications Commission (FCC)

Independent agency regulating interstate broadcast airwaves, station licensing, and media ownership concentration.

Federal Corrupt Practices Act (1910-1925)

Early campaign finance regulations establishing financial disclosure requirements and campaign spending limits.

Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA)

1971/1974 laws creating strict disclosure requirements, spending/contribution limits, and establishing the FEC.

Federal Election Commission (FEC)

Bipartisan six-member agency created in 1974 to enforce federal campaign finance disclosure and contribution laws.

Federalist No. 10

James Madison's essay asserting that a large, diverse republic controls the dangers of political factions.

Fourth Estate

Term for the news media, acting as a constitutionally protected watchdog over political power.

Fox-Dominion Settlement

787 million dollar defamation settlement demonstrating legal accountability limits for news organizations.

Free rider dilemma

Problem where individuals benefit from interest group work without joining or paying, solved via selective benefits.

Gatekeeper role

Power of professional journalists and editors to filter information and decide which stories become news.

Going public

Interest group strategy of appealing directly to mass public opinion to pressure political decision-makers.

Grassroots mobilization

Bottom-up community activism organizing ordinary citizens to protest, lobby, and contact elected officials.

Grasstops mobilization

Lobbying strategy targeting key, highly influential local constituents to contact public officials directly.

Hard money

Direct campaign contributions given to candidates, strictly limited by law and monitored by the FEC.

High-tech politics

Political system where technology and mass media directly shape citizen behavior and policy agendas.

Horse-race journalism

Media focus on candidate poll standings and strategy rather than substantive policy positions.

Hyper-pluralism

Theory that interest groups have become so powerful that government defers to them, creating gridlock.

Independent expenditure

Political spending advocating candidate election or defeat made entirely without candidate coordination.

Informational benefit

Selective group benefit providing members access to specialized publications, research reports, and conferences.

Roles of the media

Democratic duties of news outlets: act as a watchdog, inform the public, and offer public voice.

Interest group

Organization of people sharing policy goals that enters the political process to influence public policy.

Invisible primary

Early period before voting begins where candidates compete for media attention, money, and endorsements.

Iron triangle

Three-way alliance between a congressional committee, an executive agency, and an interest group.

Andrew Jackson (1829 campaign)

Pioneered modern campaign organization, substantial fundraising, and expanded the political spoils system.

Journalist

Trained professional who gathers, verifies, and reports public news, acting as an information gatekeeper.

Libel

Written defamation; requires actual malice for public figures and negligence for private citizens.

Likely voter model

Polling screen using voting history and intention to predict electoral turnout accurately.

Likely voters

Subset of surveyed adults filtered as most likely to cast votes, providing accurate election polls.

Linkage institution

Structure within society (media, elections, parties, interest groups) connecting citizens to government.

Literary Digest poll (1936)

Famous polling failure that incorrectly predicted the 1936 election due to unrepresentative straw sampling.

Direct lobbying

Direct interaction between interest group representatives and government decision-makers to influence policy.

Lobbyist

Paid professional who attempts to influence government policy and legislation on behalf of an interest group.

Logrolling

Reciprocal trading of votes and legislative favors among members of Congress.

Margin of error (Sampling error)

Statistical estimate reflecting the expected accuracy range of a poll's sample relative to the population.

Material benefit

Selective group benefit offering tangible rewards like discounts, merchandise, or travel offers to members.

McConnell v. FEC (2003)

Supreme Court decision that upheld most provisions of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA).

McCutcheon v. FEC (2014)

Supreme Court ruling striking down aggregate individual limits on donor contributions to political candidates.

Media events / Photo ops

Staged, visually appealing events organized by politicians specifically to attract positive news coverage.

Member-based vs. Staff-based groups

Member-based groups rely on constituent activism (AARP); staff-based groups operate without mass membership.

Narrowcasting

Media programming targeted toward a specific, narrow audience segment (e.g., MSNBC, Fox News, ESPN).

Naval Appropriations Bill (1867)

First federal campaign finance law; prohibited political solicitations of naval yard workers.

Near v. Minnesota (1931)

Landmark decision establishing that prior restraint on publication violates the First Amendment.

New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964)

Ruling establishing the "actual malice" standard for public figures suing news media for libel.

New York Times Co. v. United States (1971)

Pentagon Papers case reinforcing a heavy constitutional presumption against government prior restraint.

Party building

Activities designed to strengthen political parties without directly mentioning specific candidates; exploited via soft money.

Patronage / Spoils system

Practice of awarding government jobs and favors to political supporters and financial donors.

Pecking order (Newspapers)

Hierarchical influence of major print media, led by The New York Times setting national coverage agendas.

Pentagon Papers

Classified DOD history of US involvement in Vietnam leaked to newspapers, prompting a prior restraint battle.

Pluralism / Pluralist theory

Theory that political power is distributed among competing interest groups, producing compromise and stability.

Policy agenda

List of issues, problems, or subjects receiving serious attention from government officials.

Policy entrepreneurs

Activists who invest political resources and media strategy to move specific issues onto the policy agenda.

Political Action Committee (PAC)

Official fundraising arm of an interest group, capped at $5,000 per candidate per election.

Political appointee / Bundler

Individuals appointed to positions (like ambassadorships) as political rewards for gathering major political donations.

Prior restraint

Government censorship prohibiting speech or publication before it occurs; presumptively unconstitutional.

Probability sampling

Polling method where every member of the target population has a known, non-zero probability of selection.

Public figure vs. Private citizen (Libel)

Public figures must prove actual malice in defamation cases; private citizens must only prove negligence.

Public opinion

Distribution of public preferences and attitudes regarding political issues, leaders, and policies.

Purposive benefit

Selective group benefit derived from personal satisfaction in advocating for a valued public cause.

Push poll

Campaign technique presenting loaded negative information disguised as a legitimate opinion survey.

Question wording bias

Phrasing survey questions in ways that intentionally or unintentionally skew respondent answers.

Random sampling

Key polling technique where every individual in a population has an equal chance of selection.

Revolving door

Practice of former government officials leaving public office to become lucrative private lobbyists.