PSY 110 Area 3 Psychology: Memory, Cognition & Human Development

What is memory?

The retention of information or experience over time.

What are the three processes of memory?

Encoding, storage, and retrieval.

What is encoding in memory?

The process of taking in information from the environment.

What is storage in memory?

The retention of information in a mental storehouse.

What is retrieval in memory?

The recall of stored information for later use.

What is selective attention?

Focusing on certain stimuli while ignoring others.

What is divided attention?

Paying attention to multiple things at the same time.

What is sustained attention?

The ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period.

How does multitasking affect encoding?

It compromises the way information is encoded into memory.

What are the levels of processing?

Shallow, intermediate, and deep processing.

What is elaboration in memory encoding?

The formation of multiple connections around a stimulus to enhance memory.

How does imagery aid memory?

Using mental imagery enhances recall by storing information as both image and verbal codes.

What is sensory memory?

The initial stage of memory where information is held for a few seconds.

What is short-term memory?

Memory that holds information for about 30 seconds.

What is the capacity of short-term memory?

About 7 ± 2 items of information.

What is chunking?

Grouping information into larger units to improve memory retention.

What is rehearsal in memory?

Repeating information to retain it in memory.

What is working memory?

An active memory system that temporarily holds information while performing cognitive tasks.

What are the components of working memory according to Alan Baddeley?

Phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and central executive.

What is long-term memory?

A relatively permanent storage system with virtually unlimited capacity.

What is explicit memory?

Also known as declarative memory, it includes facts and events that can be verbally communicated.

What is episodic memory?

A type of explicit memory that stores autobiographical information about where, what, and when events occurred.

What is permastore memory?

The portion of learning that remains with a person indefinitely without rehearsal.

What is echoic memory?

Auditory sensory memory retained for several seconds.

What is iconic memory?

Visual sensory memory retained for about one fourth of a second.

Who conducted research on iconic memory?

George Sperling.

What is the effect of technology on memory?

People may rely on technology to look up information instead of memorizing it.

What is semantic memory?

Semantic memory pertains to information about the world, including general and academic knowledge, but not personal experiences.

How does amnesia affect memory types?

In cases of amnesia, episodic memory is impaired while semantic memory remains intact.

What is implicit memory?

Implicit memory, or nondeclarative memory, is when behavior is influenced by prior experience without conscious recollection.

What is procedural memory?

A type of implicit memory related to skills and tasks, such as driving a car.

What is classical conditioning in terms of memory?

Classical conditioning involves automatic learning of associations between stimuli.

What is priming in memory?

The activation of existing information in memory to facilitate learning new information.

What is a schema?

A schema is a preexisting mental concept that helps organize and interpret new information.

What is connectionism in memory theory?

Parallel distributed processing suggests that memories are stored in connections among neurons throughout the brain.

Who discovered that memories are not stored in one specific area of the brain?

Karl Lashley

What is long-term potentiation?

Long-term potentiation is the strengthening of synaptic connections when two neurons are activated simultaneously.

Which brain structures are involved in explicit memories?

The hippocampus, temporal lobes, and amygdalae.

What is the serial position effect?

The tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list better than those in the middle.

What is the primacy effect?

The primacy effect is better recall for information at the beginning of a list due to more rehearsal.

What is the recency effect?

Better recall for information at the end of a list, often because it is still in working memory.

What is context-dependent memory?

When people remember information better in the same context in which they learned it.

What are flashbulb memories?

Vivid memories of emotionally significant events that are often recalled with high accuracy.

What is the reminiscence bump?

The tendency of adults to remember more events from their second and third decades of life.

What is repression in memory?

A defense mechanism where a person forgets a traumatic event as a way to cope with the pain.

What is eyewitness testimony?

Eyewitness testimony is when individuals report what they saw or heard related to a crime.

What is the difference between recall and recognition?

Recall requires retrieving previously learned information, while recognition involves identifying familiar items.

What role do neurotransmitters play in memory?

Neurotransmitters like serotonin trigger memories and are involved in the memory formation process.

What is the significance of emotional memories?

Emotional memories are often more vivid and durable than everyday memories due to their significance.

What is the encoding specificity principle?

States at the time of encoding aids in memory retrieval.

What is the role of the cerebellum in memory?

Involved in implicit memories required for performing various skills.

What is meant by 'discovered memories'?

Discovered memories refer to memories recovered from trauma, which individuals experience as real, regardless of accuracy.

What factors can affect the accuracy of eyewitness testimony?

Distortion, bias, and inaccuracy in memory.

What percentage of identifications in the U.S. are estimated to be wrong?

One third of the time.

What is the role of DNA evidence in legal cases involving eyewitness testimony?

Less than 5% of legal cases involving eyewitness testimony include biological evidence.

What psychological research is being applied to improve eyewitness testimony?

The use of double-blind procedures in criminal lineups.

What is encoding failure?

When information was never stored in long-term memory.

What is retrieval failure?

Problems with retrieving information from memory.

What is proactive interference?

When old information disrupts the remembering of new information.

What is retroactive interference?

When new information disrupts the remembering of old information.

What does decay theory suggest?

That neurochemical memory traces disintegrate over time, leading to forgetting.

What is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon?

When a person is confident they know something but cannot retrieve it.

What is prospective memory?

The ability to remember to do something in the future.

What is anterograde amnesia?

The inability to remember new information after an event.

What is retrograde amnesia?

The inability to remember past information while being able to form new memories.

What is the first step to improve memory according to study tips?

Review your notes to ensure the information is correct.

What are some organizational techniques for studying?

Outlining, analogies, and mnemonics.

What is the importance of rehearsal in memory retention?

Rehearsal helps store information permanently.

What role does autobiographical memory play in our lives?

It allows us to learn from experiences and provides a sense of identity.

What is the relationship between active engagement and memory?

Active engagement is needed for experiencing and remembering everyday life.

What are concepts in the context of thinking?

Mental categories used to group objects, events, and characteristics.

What is the prototype model?

A way of evaluating whether something belongs to a particular concept based on average characteristics.

What is problem-solving?

An attempt to find the appropriate way of achieving a goal when it is not readily available.

What are subgoals in problem-solving?

Intermediate goals that help in reaching the final goal or solution.

What is an algorithm in problem-solving?

A strategy that guarantees a solution to a problem.

What is a heuristic?

A shortcut strategy that suggests a solution but does not guarantee an answer.

How can one evaluate solutions in problem-solving?

By trying the solution and seeing whether it works.

What is the first step in evaluating a solution?

A person must try the solution and see whether it works.

Why should problems and solutions be redefined over time?

To continually improve on previous solutions and find better ways to solve problems.

What does fixation in problem solving refer to?

Using a prior strategy and failing to look at the problem from a fresh perspective.

What is functional fixedness?

When an individual fails to solve a problem due to being fixated on the usual functions of an object.

What is cognitive flexibility in problem solving?

The ability to consider options and alternatives when working through a problem.

What is reasoning?

The mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions.

What is inductive reasoning?

Reasoning from specific observations to general conclusions, often referred to as bottom-up processing.

What is deductive reasoning?

Reasoning from general principles to specific instances.

How does decision making differ from reasoning?

Decision making involves evaluating alternatives and making choices, often with more uncertainty.

What characterizes System 1 decision making?

It is automatic, intuitive, and relies on heuristics, functioning quickly but potentially leading to mistakes.

What characterizes System 2 decision making?

It is slower, effortful, and analytical, involving conscious reflection on issues.

What is loss aversion?

The strong preference to avoid loss compared to acquiring gains.

What is the endowment effect?

The tendency to assign greater value to things we own compared to those owned by others.

What is the sunk cost fallacy?

The reluctance to give up on a venture due to past investments, rather than current circumstances.

What is confirmation bias?

The tendency to search for and use information that supports our existing beliefs.

What is hindsight bias?

The tendency to falsely believe one predicted an outcome after it has occurred.

What is the availability heuristic?

Predicting the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling similar events.

What is base rate neglect?

Using vivid information to make decisions instead of general information about the problem.

What is the representativeness heuristic?

Making judgments about group membership based on physical appearance or stereotypes.

What is critical thinking?

The ability to grasp deeper meanings, keep an open mind, and question long-held assumptions.

What does mindfulness mean in the context of critical thinking?

Being alert and mentally present, which is key to creating new ideas and being open to new information.

What is actively open-minded thinking?

A flexible, questioning approach that reduces susceptibility to biased thinking.

What is creative thinking?

The ability to think in novel ways and devise unconventional solutions to problems.