PSYCH 101- Exam 2

Cell body (soma) definition:

the cell’s life support system

Dendrites definition:

receive messages from other cells

Axon definition:

passes electrical messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands 

Myelin Sheath definition:

(fatty tissue) covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses 

Terminal Branches definition:

of the axon- form junctions with other cells. 

How does Neuroscience/ biology have to do with psychology?

The brain enables thinking, feeling, and behavior. These are relationships between brain regions, neural networks, and categories of behavior. 

What are Synapses (i.e., Synaptic cleft or gap)?

 The junction (gap) between the axon tip of a sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of a receiving neuron. 

What process occurs between synapses?

Communication- send messages to neighboring dendrites. 

What are Action Potentials?

Nerve impulse or electrical signals that travel down an axon within a neuron. (neuron is firing)

What does it mean when we describe neurons as operating according to the “all or none” principle?

One neuron is adequately stimulated and reaches the threshold; it is going to fire no matter what. Neuron reaction of either firing or not firing. Once it fires, it can’t be stopped or “just fire a little” additional stimulation does not cause a “stronger” fire none. 

What is an example of all or none principle?

Firing a single shot shotgun, when you hit a point when no matter what you do the bullet is coming out at the same pace

What is the role of the presynaptic neuron?

The neuron sending the signal releases neurotransmitters into the synapse; some are absorbed by the postsynaptic neuron. 

What is the role of the postsynaptic neuron?

The neuron that is receiving the signal

Describe the Refractory Period

Brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired. They last a fraction of a second but during this time, neurons cannot fire even if stimulated. 

What is a good way to think of the refractory period?

Think about this as two neurons, one shoots the other which gets loaded and hits the next down the line.The process goes over and over. Electrical-chemical back and forth. 

What are neurotransmitters?

 Neuron-produced chemicals that cross the synaptic gap to carry messages to other neurons or muscles. Different neurons release different neurotransmitters, each carrying specific messages that influence our motions and emotions.  

Describe the role of neurotransmitters in communication between neurons?

They are chemical messengers released from a presynaptic neuron into the synaptic cleft, where they bind to receptors on a postsynaptic neuron to either stimulate or inhibit a new electrical signal.

What is reuptake?

Reabsorption of a neurotransmitter by the presynaptic (sending) neuron. After the neurotransmitter is released from the presynaptic neuron, the postsynaptic neuron is sucked back a little by the presynaptic neuron.

What do Reuptake Inhibitor medications, such as SSRIs, (most common) due to the reuptake process?

Mess with the reuptake process to cause the body to produce and absorb more of certain neurotransmitters. The brain ends up having more serotonin than needed. They work slowly 6-8 weeks.  

What is the result of Reuptake Inhibitor medications? For SSRI and SNRI

SSRI’s (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors) result in more serotonin; used to treat depression and anxiety

SNRI’s (Serotonin Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors) result in more serotonin and norepinephrine; in addition to depression and anxiety, they are used to treat chronic pain 

Dopamine function-

Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion.

Dopamine consequences and catch phrase

Oversupply linked to schizophrenia. Undersupply is linked to tremors and decreased mobility in Parkinson’s disease. 

Small dopey is parking a car; tall dopey is skiing

Serotonin function:

Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal.

Serotonin consequences and catch phrase

Undersupply is linked to depression. Some drugs that raise serotonin levels are used to treat depression. Sir Rotten-Always in a bad mood

Endorphins function:

Neurotransmitters that influence the perception of pain or pleasure.

Endorphins consequences and catch phrase

Oversupply with opioid drugs can suppress the body’s natural endorphin supply.

 Help you endure

What are nerves?

Electrical cables formed from axon bundles

“What is the purpose/function of the body’s nervous system?”

 The body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network. Consists of all the neurons of the central and peripheral nervous systems.  

What are the three types of neurons?

Sensory, motor, and interneuron

What is the role of the sensory neuron?

(afferent) carry information toward the Central Nervous System from the sensory organs 

What is the purpose of the motor neuron?

(efferent)-carry information away from the Central Nervous System to operate muscles and glands. 

What is the purpose of the interneuron?

• Send information between sensory neurons and motor neurons. 

What are the names of the two main nervous systems?

Central and peripheral nervous systems

Central Nervous System (CNS) 

Controls the brain and spinal cord

What does the brain do?

enables humanity, contains 86 billion neurons that cluster into work groups to form NEURAL networks that govern reflexes.

What does the spinal cord do?

connects the PNS and the brain, governs reflexes; injury could cause the loss of sensation and voluntary movement. 

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) 

Carries info from the CNS to organs and parts of the body. Contains all nerves outside the CNS. Can be subdivided into the somatic and the autonomic nervous systems. 

Somatic Nervous System

Controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Responsible for sensation, movement, and conscious actions. 

Autonomic Nervous System

-Controls glands and internal organs. Controls involuntary functions like heartbeat and breathing. Composed of two parts the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.

Sympathetic Nervous System and Mnemonic

arouses us, turns on “Fight or Flight” reaction, the gas pedal to our body in response to a threat, MNEMONIC: It gives you “sympathy” to help you during a stressful time 

Parasympathetic Nervous System and mnemonic

Calms us back down, turns on “Rest and Digest” reaction, the “brake pedal” of our body once danger has passed, MNEMONIC: Think of a Parachute slowly gliding you back down to Earth. 

The Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems are divisions of which Nervous System?

Peripheral Nervous System

The Parasympathetic NS and Sympathetic NS are divisions of which Nervous System? 

Autonomic Nervous System

Describe how the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions impact the eyes, heart, and lungs when each is activated.   

Sympathetic division: dilates pupils and inhibits tear glands (fight or flight), more to see, increases heart rate, and dilates bronchi (lungs)

Parasympathetic division: constricts pupils and stimulates tear glands (rest and digest), less to see, slows heart rate, and constricts the bronchi (lungs)

What is the endocrine system?

 Composed of glands (some of which are in the brain) that produce and secrete hormones. The system and the hormones it produces control most major bodily functions including the regulation of the immune system, sexual arousal, growth, puberty, fertility, emotions, thirst, and hunger.

How are hormones different from neurotransmitters?

Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by the glands in the bloodstream and regulate the activity of cells or organs. Hormones are not the same as neurotransmitters.  

What are the names of the glands of the endocrine system and their function?

• Pituitary gland-The “master gland” releases hormones to stimulate and regulate all the other glands and hormones in the body. 

• Adrenal gland-Releases hormones and turns on our “fight or flight reaction” our stress response. 

What are the names of the brain regions/ structures found at the back of the brain?

brainstem, pons, medulla, and cerebellum

Brainstem-

Central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions  

Pons-

important structure for consciousness and sleep

Medulla-

Hindbrain structure that is the brainstem’s base; controls heartbeat and breathing

Cerebellum and mnemonic

(a guy uses two bells to balance on a tightrope) “Little brain” situated at the rear of the brainstem. Aids in judgment of time, discrimination of sound and texture, and emotional control. Coordinates voluntary movement and life-sustaining functions. Helps process and store memories of things that cannot be consciously recalled. 

What are the names of the brain/limbic system found in the middle of the brain?

Basal ganglia, amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus, and hippocampus

Basal Ganglia-

Motor control, thinking, learning, emotion processing 

Amygdala- and mnemonic

( Amy is full of fear) fear, aggression, and reward 

Thalamus and mnemonic

(Cops telling people where to go) part of the forebrain that relays info from sensory organs to the cerebral cortex 

Hypothalamus and mnemonic

(Thirsty-llamas) Part of the forebrain that regulates the amount of fear, thirst, sexual drive, and aggression we feel. 

Hippocampus and mnemonic

(hippo can’t remember where home is) Plays a role in our learning, memory, and ability to compare sensory info to expectations.  

What are the names of the lobes/ cortices/ structures?

Corpus Callosum, frontal lobe, pre-frontal cortex, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, temporal lobe, somatosensory cortex, visual cortex, and auditory cortex

Way to remember the lobes and placements

Front to back, Freud tore his pants off. Frontal lobe, temporal lobe, parietal lobe, and occipital lobe.

Corpus Callosum-

connects the two hemispheres (or halves) of our brain. Callosotomy as a possible treatment for severe epilepsy led to split-brain research 

Frontal lobe-

Involves in personality (responsible for ADHD) (very front)

Pre-frontal Cortex

involves in intentional actions, focus, and in making plans and judgments 

Parietal Lobe

Includes the sensory cortex (behind frontal lobes) (pariah bites you) 

Occipital lobe

includes the visual areas; they receive visual info from the opposite visual field (Occipital sounds like optical)

Temporal lobe

include the auditory processing areas; Wernicke's area (between temples) (tempo is a part of music you can hear) 

Somatosensory Cortex

Front of parietal lobe- Where we have feelings or senses

Motor Cortex

In front of somatosensory- where we have motor control

Visual Cortex

Area in the occipital lobes located at the rear of the brain, receives input from the eyes 

Auditory Cortex

Area in the temporal lobes located above the ears. Receives info from the ears 

“What are the two types of Homunculus and what do they represent?

Motor Cortex-motor functions and Somatosensory-senses/feelings Cortex 

Explain why there are more neurons in motor cortex devoted to moving your fingers than to moving your buttocks?

Fingers require more precise control than your buttocks, so the brain has dedicated more motor cortex neurons to them.

What is neuroplasticity?

The brain can adapt and change over time. (also called synaptic plasticity) Is involved in learning, memory, and mood regulation; the brain is most capable of this in childhood. 

How is neuroplasticity different from neurogenesis?

The birth of new neurons mostly occurs prenatally. However, some areas of the brain continue to “grow” new neurons throughout life. 

“Whose brain is more capable of changing, a child’s or an adult's?

Childs

Brain damage effects are caused by….?

severed neurons and spinal cord neurons that do not repair themselves; some are forever linked to specific areas. The brain can adapt and reorganize existing tissues. 

What is contralateral control?

The right hemisphere controls the movement of the left side of the body and vice versa, which is known as Contralateral control. EX) for 95% of people language appears to be dominant in the left side of the brain 

What is lateralization?

Certain skills are dominant in one hemisphere or the other

What have we learned about lateralization from split brain patients?  

When the corpus callosum has been severed, it usually treats severe epilepsy. This prevents info form being shared normally between the two sides. The left is dominant in speech and language while the right is better at spatial abilities, visual processing, and emotion. 

“Describe the two types of aphasia, discussed in lecture, caused by damage to Broca’s Area and Wernicke’s Area

Broca's Area- (broken language) Has a hard time recalling words. Non-fluent language disorder caused by damage to Broca's area in the left frontal lobe, leading to effortful recall. 

Wernicke's Area- (what comes out doesn't make sense) fluent language disorder caused by damage to the left posterior temporal region, leading to nonsensical but fluent speech, sever comprehension deficits, and unawareness of errors. 

 

Brain damage:

can be either widespread or localized, and the disability depends on the location and extent of the damage. (stroke- loss of blood flow to the brain, resulting in death/ damage of neural tissue) 

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

Physical trauma or a head injury from an outside source. Ex) concussion 

Meningitis

Bacteria causes swelling of the meninges, the layer of tissue between the brain and skull bone that is responsible for protecting the brain. 

Encephalopathy/Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE)

Disease or infection of the brain. Can be caused by viruses, bacteria, toxins, and injury. CTE is when somebody gets encephalopathy and can’t be treated; it rots the brain. Football and boxers are common for CTE. 

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) 

a progressive neurological disease that affects motor neurons. The nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord that control voluntary muscle movement slowly die. Symptoms include slurred speech, muscle weakness, and muscle twitching. 

Parkinsons’s disease

Caused by breakdown of neurons in the basal ganglia, which results in disruption of dopamine production/ absorption. Cause unintended or uncontrollable movements such as shaking, stiffness, and difficulty with balance and coordination. Symptoms usually begin gradually and worsen over time. As the disease progresses, people may have difficulty walking and talking.  

What neurotransmitter is involved in Parkinsons disease?

Dopamine. Low dopamine levels can cause the classic symptoms of Parkinson’s like tremors, muscle rigidity, and balance problems. 

Alzheimer’s

Develops plaques and tangles that interfere with brain functioning and lead to atrophy. Causes dementia, loss of motor and life skills and language and eventually death. 

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

is a recording of electrical waves sweeping across the brain's surface. An EEG is useful in studying seizures and sleep.

Computer Tomography (CAT or CT scan)

A series of x-rays taken from many different perspectives, can be performed on any body part, can be done with or without contrast, used to diagnosis injuries to tissue and bones. 

Positron Emission Tomography (PET Scan)

Allows us to see what part of the brain is active by tracing where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. Can detect the spread of cancer and “real time” activity in the brain.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Makes images from signals produced by brain tissue after magnets align the spin of atoms. Still pictures. Shows structure. 

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Reveals brain activity and function rather than structures. Functional MRI compares successive MRI images taken a split second apart and shows changes in the level of oxygen in blood flow in the brain. Functioning (moving) 

Define Consciousness.”

” Is subjective awareness of the self and the environment. Enables humans to exert voluntary control and communicate mental states with others. Helps focus on one’s attention.

Conscious awareness

a product of coordinated, cortex-wide activity

“Define “selective attention” and contrast this with “selective inattention.” 

Selective attention- is a conscious focus on one stimulus or perception at a given time. While selective inattention refers to the environmental stimuli screened out or ignored while your attention is selectively focused on something else. The consequences of multitasking, or divided attention, can be negative and even deadly. 

How are selective attention and selective inattention related and how do they work together?

They are the same mental process. They work together because the brain has limited processing capacity. To pay attention to one thing, it must reduce attention to other things.

Summarize inattentional blindness phenomena:

A phenomenon where a person fails to notice something that is clearly visible because their attention is focused on something else.

Summarize change blindness phenomena:

A phenomenon in which people fail to notice a change in their visual environment, especially when the change occurs during a brief interruption or distraction.

Sleep definition:

natural loss of consciousness. 24-hour biological clock- 90-minute sleep cycle