Unit 3: Development and Learning

Developmental psychology

Stability vs. change

are personality traits set or continue throughout life, or do they change because of family/environment?

Continuous vs. discontinuous development

is development gradual, cumulative and smooth or distinct, abrupt stages?

Teratogens

something that can cause birth defects or abnormalities in a developing embryo or fetus

Fine motor coordination

small, precise movements

Gross motor coordination

large muscle group doing large movements

Rooting reflex

you touch/stroke the corner of a baby’s mouth and they should turn their head and open their mouth

Visual cliff

tests depth perception in infants

critical/sensitive periods

a specific, limited developmental time frame shortly after birth or during early childhood when the brain is exceptionally sensitive to environmental stimuli

Adolescence

transitional developmental period from childhood to adulthood, spanning roughly from puberty to independent adulthood

puberty

rapid, intense surge of hormones that causes physical maturation

Primary sex characteristics

make sexual reproduction possible; ovaries, testes, and external genitalia

Secondary sex characteristics

non-reproductive physical traits that emerge during puberty without being directly involved in reproduction

Menarche

first menstrual period

spermarche

first ejaculation of semen

menopause

stopping of menstruation

Jean Piaget Stages of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor stage

0-2 years old; learns through senses and actions

Preoperational stage

2-7 years old; egocentric, difficulty understanding conservation and logic

Concrete operational

7-11 years old; thinks more logically about concrete events, understands conservation

Formal operational

12+ years; develops abstract and hypothetical thinking, thinks about future and moral issues

Object permanence

the awareness that objects continue to exist even when they are not in sight

Mental symbols

internal, cognitive, and symbolic representations of external reality used to process information, think, and communicate (ex. images, concepts, words)

Pretend play

an imaginative form of play where children use objects, actions, or roles to represent other things

Conservation

the understanding that certain physical properties of objects - volume, mass, or number - remain the same even when their outward appearance or shape changes

Reversibility

understand that objects or numbers can be changed and then returned to their original state or form (ex. 3 + 4 = 7) (7 - 4 = 3)

animism

belief that inanimate objects - like toys, dolls, or clouds - possess human-like feelings, intentions, and consciousness

egocentrism

children assume that others see, hear, and feel exactly as they do

Theory of mind

thinking and understanding another person’s POV

abstract/hypothetical thinking

the ability to reason about concepts, possibilities, and “what if” scenarios

Lev Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development

the learning gap between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with the guidance of another (parent, teacher, mentor)

scaffolding

temporary support provided to learners to help them master a task beyond their current capability

Crystallized intelligence

a person’s accumulated knowledge - increases over time

Fluid intelligence

raw mental processing speed and pattern recognition - decreases

dementia

progressive, chronic or persistent syndrome involving severe decline in memory, language, and cognitive functioning

language

complex system of communication that involves the use of words, symbols, or signs to express thoughts, ideas, and emotions

phonemes

smallest, distinct units of sound

morphemes

smallest unit of language that carries meaning

semantics

rules used to derive meaning from sounds, words and sentences

Grammar

the system of rules governing the structure and usage of a language

syntax

specific rules for ordering words into sentences

Language Development

Cooing

“ooh,” “ah” sounds

Babbling

produce repetitive consonant-vowel combinations

One-Word Stage

use single words to convey meaning

Telegraphic Speech

use two-word or short, condensed phrases

Overgeneralization of language rules

a phase in child language acquisition where children apply regular grammatical rules to irregular words (ex. “goed,” “eated”)

Ecological systems theory

argues that human development is shaped by interconnected environmental systems

Microsystem

home life, parents, school, friends, siblings, neighborhood

Mesosystem

interaction between kids, teachers, and parents

Exosystem

mass media, social services, local government, parents’ workplace

Macrossystem

values, attitudes, laws and legal systems, ideologies, political system, nationality

Chonosystem

historical events, environmental changes, change over time

Parenting styles

Authoritarian

domineering, dictatorial, enforce punishments, unresponsive

Authoritative

enforce rules, provide warmth and support

Permissive

lenient, few demands, “friend”

Attachment

An emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to their caregiver and showing distress in separation

Secure attachment

greets parents with positive emotions

Insecure attachment

Avoidant

may avoid parents

Anxious

confusion or apprehension

Disorganized

wary of strangers

Temperament

an infant’s innate, biologically-based characteristic style of emotional reactivity and behavioral regulation

Separation anxiety

distress infants and young children feel when separated from primary caregivers

Harlow Monkey Experiment

attachment is primarily based on “contact comfort” rather than nourishment

Parallel play

when young children play beside each other but do not directly interact, share, or communicate

Social clock

culturally preferred timing for major life events (ex. starting a career, marriage, having kids)

Emerging adulthood

developmental stage between adolescence and full adulthood, characterized by identity exploration, and feeling “in-between”

Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

each stage of development is defined by a core conflict that shapes personality and identity; successfully resolving conflicts leads to healthy social development

Trust and mistrust

(0-2 years) Can I trust my caregiver?

Autonomy and shame and doubt

(2-4 years) Can I do things myself, or am I reliant on the help of others?

Initiative and guilt

(4-5 years) Is it OK for me to do things on my own?

Industry and inferiority

(5-12 years) Am I competent and capable?

Identity and role confusion

(13-19 years) Who am I?

Intimacy and isolation

(20-40 years) Can I form meaningful relationships without losing myself?

Generativity and stagnation

(40-65 years) Am I making a difference or am I just existing?

Integrity and despair

(65-death) Have I lived a meaningful, fulfilling life?

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)

traumatic events before age 18 (ex. abuse, neglect, household dysfunction) that significantly increase risks for long-term physical, mental, and behavioral health issues

Identity Achievement

individuals have explored various beliefs, values, and career options and have made a firm, personal commitment to them

Identity Diffusion

lack of both exploration and commitment to an identity

Identity foreclosure

when an individual commits to an identity, values, or a future path prematurely without exploring alternatives

Identity moratorium

high exploration but low commitment to an identity

learning

change in a subject’s behavior to a given situation brought about by their repeated experiences in that situation

Associative learning

Classical conditioning

a form of learning where an association is made between a neutral stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus that involuntarily elicits a response

Operant conditioning

voluntary behaviors increase or decrease depending on whether the person receives rewards or punishments

Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

a person, place, thing that triggers a response

Unconditioned response (UCR)

an unlearned reaction

Neutral stimulus (NS)

a random person, place, thing that evokes no response